Mud Engineering

Important Notes
Basics
Mud Engineering

MUD RIG

Parameters & Tests Calculations

Products Drilling Problems

Clay Chemistry Drill String

Contaminates

Mud Types
Mud Parameters & Tests
1) Viscosity
2) Density
3) Fluid Loss
4) pH
5) Solids
6) Chlorides
7) Calcium & Hardness
8) MBT
9) Pf , Mf and Pm
10) Lime Content
1) Viscosity
 Meaning: The fluid resistance to flow, and is a
relation between shear stress and shear rate.
 Measured: by Funnel Viscosity (sec./quad).

 Viscosifiers:
1)Bentonite: Used in spud mud at surface holes
after dispersion and prehydrated .Lime is added for
flocculation. (SG: 2.6)
2)Polymers: (ex: XC Polymer, HEC, PAC).
Mainly XC-Polymer is used as it gives PV, YP and gel
strength, HEC and PAC are mainly used as fluid loss
reducers they don’t give good rheology.
Plastic Viscosity
 Meaning: Is the part of resistance to flow
caused by mechanical friction or
Solids.

 Affected by: Solids conc., shape and size.

Presence of long chain polymers.

 Measured: Using V-G meter

R600-R300

 Chemicals used: Bentonite( if it can be used)

Polymers
Yield Point
 Meaning: Measure of attractive forces in the mud,
responsible for suspension of cuttings in dynamic
conditions (carrying capacity).

 Affected by: Surface properties of the fluid.

Solids Concentration.
Electrical environment of these fluids.
 Measured: Using V-G meter
R300- PV
 Chemicals used: Bentonite( if it can be used)
Polymers
Gel Strength
 Meaning: Is the attractive force between particles of
the solution, responsible for the suspension of
cuttings in static conditions (carrying capacity).

 Affected by: Anything promoting or preventing the

linkage of particles.

 Measured: Using V-G meter

R3 (10 sec.)/ R3 (10 min.)
 Chemicals used: Bentonite( if it can be used)
Polymers
2) Density
 Meaning: mud weight (Lb/ft3)

 Affected by: Amount of solids in the mud.

 Measured by: Mud balance

 Chemicals used:
Barite(BaSo4) max. 152 (Lb/ft3) SG:4.2
Marble Fine(CaCo3) max. 106 (Lb/ft3) SG:2.8
Calcium Chloride max. 86 (Lb/ft3)
Sodium Chloride max. 74.9 (Lb/ft3)
Potassium Chloride max. 73.3 (Lb/ft3)
3) Fluid Loss
 Meaning: Amount of fluid forced into permeable
formation by differential pressure, after the
deposition of thin, low permeable filter cake to seal
permeability

 Affected by: Time, Pressure, viscosity, Filter cake

permeability and solids orientation and composition.

 Measured by: API Fluid loss

 Chemicals used: PAC (polyanionic cellulose).

STARCH
HEC (hydroxyethyl cellulose).
4) pH
 Measured: 1) pH meter 2) pH strip

 Chemicals: Caustic Soda

Potash
Lime
Soda Ash
5) Solids
 Measured: Retort Analysis

 Effect: Increases Mud Weight and

Plastic Viscosity.
 Type: High Gravity Solids (SG> 4.2)
Low Gravity Solids (SG < 3 )
6) Chloride Content
 1 ml filtrate + few drops Potassium
Chromate.
 Titrate with Silver Nitrate
 Multiply the volume of Silver Nitrate
needed to change the color from yellow
to orange red and persists for 30
second by Silver Nitrate concentration
(1,000 or 10,000).
7) Calcium Content
 1 ml filtrate + few drops NaOH +
Caliver II Indicator
 Titrate with EDTA solution
 Multiply the volume of EDTA needed to
change the color from wine red to blue
with no traces of under tint red
remaining by EDTA concentration (200
or 400).
Hardness (Ca++ & Mg+)
 1 ml filtrate + few drops Ammonia +
Caliver II Indicator
 Titrate with EDTA solution
 Multiply the volume of EDTA needed to
change the color from wine red to blue
by EDTA concentration (200 or 400).
8) MBT
 1 ml mud + 10 ml water + 15 ml (3% H2O2)
+ 0.5 (5N Sulfuric Acid)
 Boil Gently for 10 min.
 Dilute to about 50 ml with water.
 Add 0.5 ml Methylene blue solution and shake for
30 sec. then take a drop on a filter paper.
 The end point is reached when a blue sun shine
ring appears around the dyed solution.
 Measure the amount of drops and multiply by 5.
9) Pf
1. 1 ml filtrate + 5 ml deionized water
2. Add few drops Phenol Phethylene indicator.
3. If the color turns pink titrate by N/50
Sulfuric Acid.
4. The end point is reached when the pink
color disappears.
5. Pf is the number of ml of Acid per ml filtrate
required to reach the end point.
Mf
6. To the same sample used for measuring Pf,
add 3 to 4 drops of methyl orange cresol
green indicator; a green color will develop.
7. Titrate with N/50 acid until the color changes
to yellow. This will occur at pH of 4.3.
8. The Mf is reported as the total ml of acid
used for Pf plus this last titration.
 Pm
1. Measure 1 ml of mud + 25 ml distilled water
+ add 5 drops phenolphthalein indicator
2. Titrate quickly with N/50 acid or 0.1 N acid
until the pink color disappears.
3. Report the phenolphthalein alkalinity of the
mud, Pm, as the number of ml of (N/50) acid
required per ml of mud. If 0.1 N acid is used,
Pm = 5 x ml of 0.1 N acid per ml mud.
10) Lime Content
1. Determine the Pf and Pm.
2. Determine the volume fraction of water in
the mud, Fw (decimal fraction of water),
using the value from the retort test.
3. Report the lime content of the mud in lb/bbl
calculated from the following equation:
Lime (lb/bbl) = 0.26 x (Pm - FwPf).
 Products
1) Weighting Materials 8) Emulsifiers
2) Viscosifiers 9) Thinners
3) LCM 10) Commercial Chemicals
4) Filtration Control 11) H2S Scavengers
5) Shale Stabilizers 12) O2 Scavengers
6) Lubricants 13) Bacteriocids
7) Torque Reducers 14) Defoamers
1) Weighting Materials
 Barite(BaSo4) max. 152 pcf

 Marble Fine(CaCo3) max. 106 pcf

 Calcium Chloride max. 86.0 pcf

 Sodium Chloride max. 74.9 pcf

 Potassium Chloride max. 73.3 pcf

Barite
 Barite can be used to increase the density of any mud
system. Mud weights up to 150 pcf can be achieved in
most drilling fluids while still maintaining good flow
properties. Barite is also excellent in formulating special
kill fluids and barite plugs that often reach 165 pcf for well
control procedures.

 An increase in volume of approximately 1.4 bbl/ton

can be expected from Barite additions. Density increases
may require water or base liquid dilution sufficient to wet
the surfaces of the added barite adequately.
Barite Mass Increase
 How many Lbs of Barite is added to change the
weight from W1 to W2? (2 Ways)

Lb/bbl needed= 1471 x (W2-W1)

35-W2
Specific gravity of barite =4.2 , Density of water=8.3 Lb/gal
4.2 x 8.3 =35 Lb/gal , 35 Lb/gal x 42 gal= 1471 Lb/bbl
W1 & W2 in PPG
Lb/bbl needed= 10 Lb x (W2-W1) x Vw
5500 Lb
Vw= Volume of water needed for the mix
Marble Mass Increase
 How many Lbs of Marble fine is added to
change the weight from W1 to W2?

Lb/bbl needed= 945x(W2-W1)

22.5-W2

Specific gravity of Marble =2.7

Density of water=8.3 Lb/gal
2.7 x 8.3 =22.5 Lb/gal
22.5 Lb/gal x 42 gal= 945 Lb/bbl
2) Viscosifiers

Bentonite
XC - Polymer
Bentonite
 Bentonite is used to increase viscosity and reduce fluid loss in
water-base drilling fluids. It is a cost-effective means of
achieving viscosity, fluid loss control and filter cake quality in
freshwater and seawater muds.
 Typical concentrations for Bentonite range from 5 to 35
lb/bbl. As with all Bentonite products, the yield decreases
as water salinity increases. In muds containing more
than 10,000 mg/l chlorides, the performance of Bentonite is
significantly reduced unless prehydrated in fresh water before
adding to the mud system.
 Performance reduced in salty (>5,000 mg/l Cl-) or hard
(>240 mg/l Ca++) waters due to decreased hydration
XC Polymer
 The primary function of XC Polymer is to increase viscosity for
cuttings transport and suspension. XC Polymer will perform
effectively in all waterbase fluids, from highly weighted to low-
solids systems.
 The amount of XC Polymer required will depend upon the
desired viscosity. Normal concentrations range from 0.25 to 2
lb/bbl for most mud systems. Special fluids and difficult hole-
cleaning conditions may require higher concentrations up to 4
lb/bbl. The addition of salt, an antioxidantand thermal
stabilizers will improve temperature stability in fluids from 250°
to >280°F .Specially formulated systems have been used at
temperatures of 400°F. XC Polymer is subject to bacterial
degradation, and treatments with a biocide are recommended
to prevent fermentation.
 Not tolerant of high pH or high calcium ion conditions
3) Loss Circulation Materials
1. MICA “Coarse” and MICA “Fine”

2. Walnut Shell

3. Cotton Seed

4. Marble Medium and Marble Coarse

4) Filtration Control

Starch
PAC-LV
Antisol (Pac-R)
PAC
 Description : PolyAnionic Cellulose, provides filtration control
in most water-based drilling fluids.
 Applications/Functions :
Control filtration rates without significantly increasing fluid
viscosity (Unless using PAC-R).
Encapsulate shale to prevent swelling and disintegration
 Advantages : Is stable at temperatures up to 300 F.
Effective in moderate to high pH systems.
Does not require a bacteriacide.
 Typical Properties : Bulk density, pcf 40-55
pH (1% aqueous solution) 7.75
 Recommended Treatment :
Add (0.5-3.0 lb/bbl) of PAC-L slowly through the hopper.
5) Shale Stabilizers
1. Soltex

2. BlackNite

3. KCl (Shale Inhibitor)

6) Lubricants (Stuck pipe)
 EZ Spot
 Pipe Lax

7) Torque Reducers
 Lube 167
8) Emulsifiers
Enables water to be mixed with Diesel
 Safe Surf
 Gem GP
 LoSurf

9) Thinners
 ThermaThin, Drill Thin
10) Commercial Products

•Caustic Soda
•Soda Ash

•Sodium Bicarbonate

•Lime
Caustic Soda “ NaOH “
 CAUSTIC SODA is used to maintain or increase pH. Increasing
pH with CAUSTIC SODA will precipitate (Mg2+) and suppress
(Ca2+) in high hardness waters such as seawater, reduce
corrosion, and neutralize acid gases such as (CO2) and
(H2S).
 When using CAUSTIC SODA to reduce hardness:
CAUSTIC SODA (lb/bbl) =
[Mg (mg/l) x 0.00115 x Fw] +[Ca (mg/l) x 0.0007 x Fw]
 In high hardness brines such as CaCl2, CAUSTIC SODA
cannot be used to effectively to raise the pH due to the
high level of cations which combine with hydroxyl ions to
precipitate hydroxides such as Ca(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2.
Soda Ash “ Na2CO3 “
 SODA ASH is primarily used to reduce soluble calcium in water-
base drilling muds and makeup waters. Other uses include
increasing pH and flocculating spud muds. Calcium is present
in many makeup waters and formations. It can cause flocculation
of the mud resulting in increased rheology, gel strengths and fluid
loss.
 The calcium precipitation chemical reaction is described as:
Ca2+ + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2Na+ (9.7 < pH < 11.7)
 When using SODA ASH to reduce hardness:
SODA ASH (lb/bbl) = Ca (mg/l) x 0.00093 x Fw
 In pure water, SODA ASH forms highly buffered solutions
which range between a pH of 10.9 to 11.6
 Should not be used to treat cement contamination or higher
pH fluids; is less soluble at high pH.
 Over treatment results in carbonate contamination; even
minor amounts of excess carbonate ions can cause large increases
in yield point, gel strengths and fluid loss.
Sodium Bicarbonate “NaHCO3”
 Cement contains calcium hydroxide (lime) and
related compounds which increase pH and calcium
concentration. These changes flocculate bentonite
based muds, resulting in increased rheology and fluid
loss. Sodium Bicarbonate is an economical and
effective treatment for cement contamination. It
precipitates calcium, reduces pH and
deflocculates cement contaminated fluids.

 A simplification of the chemical reactions for

precipitating lime with Sodium Bicarbonate is:
Ca(OH)2 + NaHCO3 CaCO3 + NaOH + H2O
Sodium Bicarbonate Cont’d
 When using Sodium Bicarbonate to treat cement
contamination: Sodium Bicarbonate (lb/bbl) =
Excess lime (lb/bbl) x 1.135 x Fw
 Unless a low pH is desired, Sodium Bicarbonate should
not be used to treat soluble calcium in water-base
muds and makeup waters; soda ash should be used to
reduce calcium and soften makeup water.
 When treating severe cement contamination, Sodium
Bicarbonate will not reduce pH by itself; an acid or
other pH-reducing additive should be used with Sodium
Bicarbonate for these situations.
 Over treatment results in bicarbonate, or
carbonate, contamination. Even minor amounts of
excess carbonate and bicarbonate ions can cause large
increases in yield point, gel strengths and fluid loss.
Lime “ Ca(OH)2 “
 LIME is used as an economical source of calcium for
flocculating bentonite slurries (spud mud) for improved
hole cleaning.
 Excess LIME buffers pH; provides a reserve quantity of
calcium to precipitate soluble carbonates; and
activates fatty-acid, oil-base additives.
 The solubility of LIME increases with increased
salinity, but decreases with increased calcium,
increased pH and increased temperature.
 LIME should be added slowly to the mud system through
a properly designed mud hopper. Do not mix LIME with
other chemicals or through the chemical barrel (due to
its limited solubility, it will settle).
 Excess Lime (lb/bbl) = 0.26 x (Pm - FwPf).
11) H2S Inhibitors
 Zinc Oxide (ZnO)
 SOURSCAV

12) Oxygen Scavenger

 Sodium Sulfite (Hydrex)
13) Bactericide
 Bactron

14) Defoamers
 Bara Defoamer
Clay Chemistry

Introduction
Types of Clay
Composition of Clay Mud
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Hydration of Clay
Clay particles Linking Process
Introduction

 Clay may be added intentionally, such as

Bentonite, or it may enter the mud as a major
contaminant through dispersion of drill solids.
 Clay minerals are fine-grained aluminum silicate
minerals having well-defined microstructures.
 A typical layered silicate mineral, for example, is
mica or vermiculite, which can be split into thin
layers along the cleavage planes.
Types of Clays
 Categorization of Clay
A. Depending on the repeating units of the structure.
B. The ratio of silica to alumina layers such as 1:1, 2:1.
C. Whether they are layered or needle-shaped clay
 There are a large number of clay minerals, but those
with which we are concerned in drilling fluids can be
categorized into three types.
1. Attapulgiteor, Sepiolite (Salt gels) ”Needle
Shaped”
2. Illite, Chlorite and Kaolinite (Non swelling or low
swelling) “Plate Like”
3. Montmorillonites (High swelling) “Plate Like”
Composition of Clay water Mud
1. Water Phase is the continuous phase of the mud it is common to use a
variety of brine solutions from salty to saturated as the base liquid.
2. Reactive solids phase is composed of commercial clays , hydratable
clays & shale from formation that are held in suspension in fluid phase,
these solids are treated chemically to control properties of drilling fluid.
3. Inert solids refer to those solids in suspension that are chemically
inactive, these may be inert drill solids such as lime stone, dolomite, sand
and barite.
Cation Exchange Capacity
 The compensating cations that are adsorbed on the
unit-layer surface may be exchanged for other cations
and are called the exchangeable cations of the clay.

 The Methylene Blue Test

(MBT) is an indicator of the
apparent CEC of a clay.
 When this test is run on a
mud, the total methyleneblue
exchange capacity of all the
clay minerals present in the
mud is measured.
Cation Exchange Capacity Cont’d

 It is important to note that the test does not

directly indicate the amount of bentonite
present.
 However, an estimate of the amount of
bentonite and solids in the mud can be
calculated if one considers that the average
drill solids have about 1/9 the CEC of
bentonite, and if the amount of drill solids
present in the mud is calculated from a retort
analysis.
Hydration of Clays
 Bentonite crystals consists of 3 layers ( Si – Al - Si), clay
platelets are (-ve) charged and has a cloud of cations
associated with it, if these cations are sodium the clay is
called sodium montmorillonite and id calcium it is called
calcium montmorillonite.
 When dry clay contacts fresh water, interlayer spacing
expand, and swell to the point where the forces holding
them together becomes weakened and individual layers
can be separated from the pack, separating these packs
into multiple layers is known as dispersion this phenomena
allow the clay to generate viscosity. Sodium bentonite
expands 4 times calcium bentonite therefore will generate
4 times the viscosity.
Hydration of Clays Cont’d
 The thickness of adsorbed water film is controlled by the
type and amount of cations associated with the clay.
Divalent cations (Ca2+ & Mg2+) increase the attractive force
between platelets decreasing the amount of water that
can be adsorbed, while monovalent cations like Na+
generates less attractive force allowing more water to
penetrate between platelets (Sodium bentonite swells 4
times Calcium bentonite).
 Chemical reaction between clay & (K 3+ ) ions is unique
compared to other ions. There are 2 ways that K can
become associated with clay minerals (Ion Exchange &
Ion Fixation).
 Ion fixation will occur in clays with high layer charge, this
increases the selectivity of the clay to the K ion by order of
magnitude.
Clay Particles Linking Process
1. Aggregation: Leads to the formation of thicker plates or
packets this decreases the number of particles and causes a
decrease in P.V. It can be caused by the introduction of
divalent cations to the drilling fluid such as Ca2+ either by
addition (lime or gypsum) or contamination (anhydrite or
cement) viscosity will initially increase then decrease by time
and temp.

2. Dispersion: Leads to a greater number of particles and to

increase P.V , clay particles( platelets) are normally
aggregated before they are hydrated. Degree off dispersion
depends on high electrolyte content, time, temp. &
exchangeable cations and low salinity and hardness.
Clay Particles linking Process Cont’d
3. Flocculation: Leading to the formation of a house of cards
structure, this causes increase in viscosity, gelation and fluid
loss. Anything that increases the repelling forces between
particles or shrinks the adsorbed water film, such as the
addition of divalent cation or increasing the temp. promotes
flocculation.
4. Deflocculation: Is the dissociation of flocculated particles
the addition of certain chemicals to the mud neutralizes the
electrochemical charges on the clay, this removes the
attraction forces that results in bonding between clay
particles. Since deflocculation results in a reduction in
viscosity deflocculating chemicals are usually referred to as
mud thinners. Deflocculation also aids in allowing the clay
particles to lay flat in the filter cake to reduce fluid loss.
 Mud Contaminants

1. Low Gravity Solids (LGS)

2. Salts (CaCl2, MgCl2, NaCl)
3. Cement & Lime
4. Anhydrite & Gypsum
5. Carbonates & Bicarbonates
6. Hydrogen Sulfide Gas
1) Low Gravity Solids
 Effect: Thicker and softer filter cake.
Increase in the overall reology (PV,YP and Gel strength)
 Particle Classification:
1) According to SG

A) High Density Solids >4.2

example: Hematite=5 Barite= 4.2

B) low Density Solids (1.6 – 2.9)

example: Bentonite = (2.3-2.7) Limestone = (2.7-2.9)
Diesel = 0.85 Sand = (2.6-2.7)
Low gravity Solids Cont’d
 2) According to Particle Size
Particle Size (micron) Classification Mesh Screen
>2000 Coarse 10
2000-250 Intermediate 60
250-74 Medium 200
74-44 Fine 325
44-2 Ultra Fine -
2-0 Colloidal -
Note:
1)The Smaller the particle, the more effect it has on the fluid.
2)The smaller the particle the more difficult it is to remove or
control its effect. Colloidal particles dramatically effect the fluid.
Low Gravity Solids Cont’d
2) Salts
 Influence: Chloride ions increases the salinity,
causing an increase in mud weight.
 Indication: Chloride ion test.
Calcium, Potassium & Hardness test.
Fluid Loss increase.
pH may decrease.
Foams may appear on the surface.
 Treatment: Dilution to decrease chloride, and
precipitate the cation. Mg : Increase pH over 9.
Na : Replace by Ca.
Ca : Add Soda ash.
3) Cement & Lime
 Influence: Large increase in pH.
Polymer will burn resulting in a large
decrease in AV, PV, YP and gel strength.
 Indication: pH meter.
Ca test.
API fluid loss decrease.
V-G meter parameters drop.
 Solution: Dilution to decrease pH.
Add Soda ash or Sodium bicarbonate.
Regain all lost parameters.
4) Anhydrite& Gypsum (CaSo4)
 Influence: Gel strength will increase
pH will fall
Fluid loss may decrease
Calcium will increase
 Indication: pH meter.
Ca test.
API fluid loss test.
V-G meter parameters drop.
 Solution: Add soda ash.
5) Carbonates & Bicarbonates
 Influence: Decrease Ca content.
Increase in YP and 10min Gel strength.

 Indication: Ca test.
V-G meter parameters.
Pm, Pf and Mf tests..

 Treatment: Add calcium hydroxide (lime).

6) Hydrogen Sulfide
 Influence:

 Indication:

 Solution:
Mud Types

Water Based Mud (WBM)

Oil Based Mud (OBM)
Water Based Mud (WBM)
1. Spud Mud
2. Emulsion Mud
3. Low Solid Non Dispersed Mud (LSND)
4. KCl Polymer Mud
5. Heavy Weighted Mud
6. K- Formate Mud
1) Spud Mud
 For 100 bbls
1 Sack Soda Ash (Ca+ ppt, and flocculation).
1 Big bag Bentonite.
1.5 Sack Lime (add when drilling start).
5-6 Sacks Starch (if necessary)

Density: 63 pcf
Viscosity: 60-80 sec.
pH : 9 – 10
API: 10 - 12
Gel Slips
 For 100 bbls
1 Sac Soda Ash.
1.5 Big bag Bentonite.
2 Sac Lime.
0.5 XC Polymer

Density: 63 pcf
Viscosity : 100 – 150 sec.
pH : 10 - 11
2) Emulsion Mud
 For 1 bbl
Water 0.53 bbl PV = 12
Starch 2 Lb YP = 16
Diesel 0.45 bbl GS = 2/6
SafeSurf 0.84 gal API = 6-8
Lime 0.5 Lb pH = 9-10
Barite (as desired)
3) Low Solid Non Dispersed Mud
 For 1 bbl
Water 0.95 bbl PV=18 - 24
Bentonite 5 Lb/bbl YP=24 - 26
Emfloc 6 Lb/bbl GEL sec=2-4
XC-Polymer 0.75- 1 Lb/bbl GEL min=6-12
Lime 0.5 Lb/bbl API = 6
4) KCL Polymer Mud
 For 1 bbl
Water 0.79 bbl PV = 24
XC Polymer 0.5-1 Lb YP = 22-25
Starch 4–6 Lb GS = 6/12
PAC-LV 0.5-1 Lb API = 3-5
KCl 35 Lb HPHT =14
KOH 0.25 Lb Ph = 9-10
Lime 0.25 Lb MBT = 6
Barite (as needed) Cl = 57,000
Sodium Sulfite 0.25–0.3 Lb
Soltex 2–4 Lb
5) Heavy Weighted Mud
 For mixing 200 bbls of heavy weight mud
 Add 160 bbls water
 2 Soda Ash
 ¼ Bentonite
 ½ XC-Polymer
 1 Lime (check viscosity over 40 before barite)
 15 Emfloc
 Barite = (needed weight-63) x 10 Lb/bbl x 160 bbl
5000 Lb
6) K- Formate Mud
 Usually used in Pay Zones, no Barite
added.
 1 IBC weights 97.
 1 IBC contain approximately 6.3 bbls.
 Monitor the pH carefully to minimize
corrosion risk.
 Order Densometer for CaCO3 test.
 K-Formate Mud Cont’d
 Use Mudware to mix the desired weight.
 Recipe per 100 bbl
2 PAC UL
2 PAC R or ANTISOL
1 XC Polymer till Viscosity reach 40-45
1 Soda Ash
1 Sodium Bi-Carbonate
1500 lb Marble “F”
 CaCO3 Content
 Add 1 ml of mud+9 ml of (2N) HCl “shake”
+90 ml deionized water in a 100 ml beaker
 Take 10 ml sample+0.5 ml (8N) NaOH.
 pH should be 14, else add more NaOH.
 Add Caliver 2 indicator and titrate with EDTA
(0.1M) or (0.01M).
 CaCO3(g/l) = ml EDTA ( 0.1M ) x 100
ml EDTA ( 0.01M ) x 10
 CaCO3 % = CaCO3(g/l) / 27
 CaCO3(ppb) = CaCO3(g/l) x 0.35
 Low Gravity Solids Content
 L.G.S %= Mud SG – Filtrate SG x 100
CaCo3 SG – Filtrate SG
-Mud SG= Mud Density (pcf) / 62.3
-Filtrate SG= Densometer readings
-CaCo3 SG= 2.7

 L.G.S (g/l)= L.G.S % x 27

 L.G.S (ppb)= L.G.S (g/l) x 0.35

Drilled Solids Content
 D.S (g/l) = L.G.S (g/l) – CaCO3 (g/l)

 D.S (ppb) = D.S (g/l) x 0.35

 D.S % = D.S (g/l) / 27

 Brine Content = 100 – L.G.S %

Spacers

BJ Spacer
ARAMCO Spacer
BJ Spacer
 Water 0.4 bbls
 Caustic (pH=9 at least) 0.1 Lb/bbl
 XC polymer (1hr/sac) 0.75 Lb/bbl
 Defoamer(FP-9L or Fp-12I) 0.1 gal
 Barite as needed
 S-301 1 gal/bbl
ARAMCO Spacer
 The normal mud used, except that a
higher weight is required.
 So add barite till reaching the desired
weight as per game plan.
 If used for Cement job make sure no
salts are present as salts helps Cement
to shock faster.
Calculations
 Volume Active/ Inactive Tanks Volume
Hole Volumes with/without D.S
Total Circulating Volume
Total Mud Volume
 Time Circulation Time
Bottoms Up
 Velocity Annular
 Pressure Hydrostatic Pressure
Equivalent circulating Density
Volumes
 Hole Volume (bbl):
(IDx2 x Lx)+(IDy2 x Ly)/1029.4
 Active Pits:
Vol.suc1,2,3 + Vol. intermediate + Vol. settling

 Inactive Pits:
Vol.slug+Vol.res1,2,3,4
 Total Circulating Volume:
Hole Volume+ Active Pits
 Total Mud Volume:
Total circulating Vol.+ Inactive Pits+ (Vol. Mixed+ Vol.Dilution) –
(left in hole+ Dumped+ Down hole losses+ S.C.E. loss).
Pump Out put
 Duplex
2 x ID2Liner – OD2Rod x L x Eff.
6,174
 Triplex
ID2Liner x L x Eff.
4,116
Time

 Circulation Time (min): Volume system (bbl)

Pump o/p (bbl/min)

 Bottoms up (min) : Volume annulus (bbl)

Pump o/p (bbl/min)
Velocity

 Annular Volume (bbl): IDCSG2 – ODDS2 x L

1029.4

 Annular Velocity: Pump o/p (bbl/min)

Annular Volume
Pressure

 Hydrostatic Pressure (psi):

Mud weight (Lb/Gal) x TVD (ft) x 0.052

 Equivalent circulating density (ECD):

Annular Pressure (psi)
0.052 x TVD (ft)
Main Conversions
 42 gallons = 1 barrel
 5.615 ft3 = 1 barrel
 1 ft3 = 7.48 gallons
 8.345 Lb/gal = 1 SG (specific gravity)
 62.5 pcf = 1 SG (specific gravity)
 Drilling Problems

1. Lost Circulation

2. Stuck Pipe

3. Formation Damage

4. Corrosion
1) Loss Circulation

Type
Cause
Effect
Treatment
Special Pills
Loss Circulation
Types: Partial or Complete
Cause: Due to Permeable, porous or Fractured formations
(natural or caused by excessive mud pressure).
Effect: When it takes place and not treated may induce
formation fluids from other zones previously controlled by
drilling fluid to flow into the wellbore resulting in a kick or
blowout and may induce previously stable formations to
collapse into the wellbore.
Treatment: Maintain minimum equivalent circulating density.
Avoid pressure surges.
Use LCM.
Loss Circulation Pills
 LCM Pills

 X- Link

 Barite Plug

 Marble Pill

 Gunk Squeeze

 FUSE IT
LCM Pill
 Water + Viscosifier or active mud
 For example if 200 Lb/bbl LCM is needed
 75 Lb Mica Coarse
 25 Lb Mica Fine
 50 Lb Wallnut shell
 50 Lb Cotton seed
 Then multiply by volume required “number of sacs”.
 Then divide by Sacs/Pallet “number of pallets”.
 Notes:
LCM material added from above, add have the mud then
the remaining half after mixing LCM materials.
X-Link Pill
 Add 100 bbls of water
 3 sacs Soda Ash
 1 Drum Defoamer
 26 X-link RTR cans
 60 sac X-link
 Barite till weight reached
 60 sacs X-link
 Notes:
-Clogging of the hopper line is usual, try adding the
X-link sacks slowly to delay or prevent this problem.
Barite Plug
 Mixed in cement tanks
 Approximately 200 bbl are needed.
 Pilot test should be made to test Barite settling.
 Mix in this sequence, formulation / barrel
 0.54 bbl of water
 1 Lb Caustic soda
 8 Lbs lignosulfonate (Spersene or R-8)
 Lots of Defoamer
 690 Lbs Barite
Marble Pill
 Water
 XC-Polymer (0.75-1.25)Lb/bbl
 Marble Chips 70Lb/bbl
 Marble Coarse 70Lb/bbl
 Marble Medium 60Lb/bbl

 Notes:
-Should be mixed then contained in the batch mixer
“cement tanks”.
-Viscosity should be high to be able to suspend the
marble chips (3 Lb/bbl).
Gunk Squeeze
 Mud weight 59 pcf 73 pcf 90 pcf
Water (bbl) 0.660 0.628 0.582
Spersene (lb) 3.5 3.5 3.5
Caustic soda (lb) 1.5 1.5 1.5
Geltone (lb) 220 150 100
Barite (lb) — 175 370
 Notes:
-If too much foams appeared add half Geltone II then half
barite then remaining Geltone II then remaining barite, add
defoamer ”no problem”.
-This pill is more effective when diesel is added than oil.
FUSE IT
 Water 25 bbl
 Ca++ Treated Mud 15-20 bbl
 Spacer BDF 384 6.5 bbl + Barite Volume
 FUSE IT 6.5 bbl + Barite Volume
 Pill 200 bbl
 Spacer BDF 384 6.5 bbl + Barite Volume
 Water 50 bbl
 Ca++ Treated Mud to chase Pill
 Cont’d FUSE IT
 Pill:
40 Lb/bbl Steel Seal (resiliency graphite material)
100 Lb/bbl BDF 392 (resiliency graphite material)
60 Lb/bbl Marble Chips
 Spacer:
if FUSE IT unweighted, use unweighted spacer.
if FUSE IT is weighted, add Geltone II then add Barite.
 FUSE IT:
S.G =1.2, density=56pcf, can be weighted to 112pcf
 Treated Mud:
Soluble calcium less than 200 mg/l, treat if more.
2) Stuck Pipe

Causes
Treatment
Causes
a) Poor Hole Cleaning
b) Sloughing Shale
c) Differential Pressure
d) Key Seating
e) Packing off
f) Under Gauge Hole
a) Poor Hole Cleaning/ b) Sloughing Shale

 The key to a muds lifting capacity is indicated by the

appearance of formation solids coming over the shale
shaker.
 Rounded edges on large cuttings show that these
pieces have been tumbling in the hole for a long time
and are not being lifted out effectively
 An unusually large amount of shale indicates that the
hole is washing out.
 Long splinters or fissured shale may indicate that the
shale is "popping" into the wellbore, indicative of
over pressured shale.
Poor Hole Cleaning Results in
 Large pieces of rock, which are not
removed from the hole often, become
lodged between stabilizers or reamers and
the hole. If this occurs while drilling, the torque
required to rotate the drill string will increase
rapidly.
 If pieces of rock become lodged while making a
connection or during a trip, the additional pull of
the hook will appear as a drag. A sudden
increase in pump pressure can sometimes be
observed, as bridges form and restrict mud flow
up the annulus
Methods of Prevention
 Increase the viscosity and particularly the Yield
Point of the mud. There is no exact yield value that
can be specified, as every situation is unique, but
generally an upper Yield Point of ±30 lb/100ft 2 should
clean most cuttings from the wellbore.
 Use viscous pills to sweep the hole when drilling.
 Increasing the mud density may be beneficial in some
cases to balance the pore pressure of the shale,
and to help hold formations in place to stabilize the
wellbore.
 Reducing the water loss may help to minimize the
hydration of shales and wetting along bedding planes
which could disperse and slough into the wellbore.
c) Differential Pressure
 The force that holds the pipe against the wall of the
borehole due to the differential pressure between the
hydrostatic pressure of the mud column and the
formation pressure.
 The pressure differential acts in the direction of the
lower pressure in the formation.
 This pressure pushes the pipe toward the permeable
formation. As the pressure differential gets larger, the
force exerted on the pipe gets larger.
 Differential stuck pipe occurs most often at a point
next to the drill collars. This is due to the drill collars
being larger; hence more surface area is in contact
with the side of the wellbore.
Prevention
 The mud density should be maintained as low as
practical, taking into consideration wellbore stability
and potential well control problems
 Maintain a low fluid loss and pay particular attention
to the filter cake; i.e.: it should be thin, tough and
resilient.
 In areas where differential sticking is prevalent, the
high temperature / high pressure fluid loss should be
maintained below 20 ml.
 Adding 2-8% lubricant to the mud system gives
preferential oil wetting to the drill string, thereby
allowing better lubricity and minimizing the possibility
of stuck pipe.
Action (Freeing the Stuck Pipe)
 When the drill string become stuck, it is imperative to
act quickly as the sticking coefficient increases with
time.

 A grease pill is the most effective solution.

 Generally enough pill is mixed up to cover the entire

length of the drill collars, plus an excess of (1.5 bbls)
to be left on top of the collars, and another (20 bbls)
to be left inside the drill collars.
Grease Pill Recipe
d) Key Seating
 Keyseating is a situation
frequently encountered in
deviated or crooked holes
when the drillpipe wears
into the wall. The normal
drilling rotation of the
drillstring cuts into the
formation wall in deviated
areas where the drillpipe
tension creates pressure
against the sides of the
hole.
Action

 Once a keyseat is formed,

the best solution is to ream
out the small-diameter
portions of the hole with
reaming tools.
 This action will solve the
immediate stuck-pipe
problem, but the keyseat
can be formed again unless
preventive steps are taken.
e) Packing Off

 Drilling-fluid systems with poor suspension

characteristics exhibit strong packing-off
tendencies
 Factors that can lead to caving of the
formation include:
1. Pressure imbalance
2. Shale hydration
3. Bottom hole assembly striking the wall
Action

 The Solution is to
increase the suspension
characteristics of the
mud (YP and gel
strength).
f) Under Gauge Hole

 Under gauge hole is a condition where the

borehole is smaller than the bit diameter
used to drill the section.
 Under gauge hole can result from any of the
following causes:
1. Plastic flowing formations
2. Wall-cake buildup in a permeable formation
3. Swelling shales
Plastic Flowing Formations

 Under gauge hole is a common problem

when drilling a thick salt section with an
oil mud.
 The salt can flow into the borehole and make
the section under gauge.
 When plastic salt formations exist, they are
usually below 5,000 feet.
 Spotting fresh water is the best way to free
the pipe from a plastic salt formation.
Wall cake Build Up

 Wall cake buildup occurs when the drilling

fluid has poor filtration control across a
permeable zone.
 Excessive wall-cake buildup can also be
caused by:
1. High percentage of low-gravity solids
2. High differential pressures (excessive mud
weights)
Summary of Stuck Pipe
Cause Steps to free
1. Poor Hole Cleaning Increase YP
Use High Vis Pills
2. Sloughing Shale Increase Mud Weight
Decrease Fluid Loss
3. Differential sticking Reduce mud weight.
Use spotting fluid.
4. Keyseating Ream the keyseat.
5. Packing Off Increase YP
Increase mud weight
Back off and wash over
6. Under gauge hole Increase mud weight
Ream and clean
3) Formation Damage

Common Mechanism
Drill In Fluids
Formation Damage

Common Mechanisms

 Mud or drill solids invading the formation matrix,

plugging pores.
 Swelling of formation clays within the reservoir,
reducing permeability.
 Precipitation of solids as a result of mud filtrate and
formation fluids being incompatible.
 Precipitation of solids from the mud filtrate with other
fluids, such as brines or acids, during completion or
stimulation procedures.
 Mud filtrate and formation fluids forming an emulsion,
restricting permeability.
Prevention
Using a Drill In fluid

1) Drill In Fluids should contain non-damaging

polymers, bridging agent.
2) Should have superior regain permeability.
3) May have shale or clay inhibitors.
4) Should be easy to clean up.
4) Corrosion

Definition
Causes Affecting Corrosion
Types of Corrosion
Corrosive Agents
Corrosion
 Corrosion is the destruction of metal through
electrochemical action between metal and its
environment.
 Corrosion can be costly in terms of damage to
pipe and well parts and can even result in the
loss of an entire well.
 About 75 to 85 percent of drillpipe loss can
be attributed to corrosion.
 Other areas affected by corrosion include
pump parts, bits, and casing.
Factors Affecting Corrosion
 Temperature. Generally, corrosion rates double
with every 55°F increase in temperature.
 Velocity. The higher the mud velocity, the higher
the rate of corrosion due to film erosion (oxide, oil,
amine, etc.).
 Solids. Abrasive solids remove protective films and
cause increased corrosive attack.
 Metallurgical factors. Mill scale and heat treatment
of pipe can cause localized corrosion.
 Corrosive agents. Corrosive agents such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide can
increase corrosion and lead to pipe failure.
Types of Corrosion
1. Uniform corrosion
Even corrosion pattern over surfaces

2. Localized corrosion
like corrosion pattern over surfaces

3. Pitting
Highly localized corrosion that results in the deep
penetration of surfaces
Corrosive Agents
 Oxygen
 Hydrogen sulfide
 Carbon dioxide
 Bacteria
 Dissolved salts
 Mineral scale
Oxygen
 Oxygen acts by removing protective films;
this action causes accelerated corrosion and
increased pitting under deposits.
 The four primary sources of oxygen are:
–Water additions
–Actions of mixing and solids-control equipment
–Aerated drilling fluids
–The atmosphere
 Treated by adding an oxygen scavenger.
Hydrogen Sulfide
 Hydrogen sulfide can enter the mud
system from:
–Formation fluids containing hydrogen sulfide
–Bacterial action on sulfur-containing
compounds in drilling mud
–Thermal degradation of sulfur-containing
drilling fluid additives
–Chemical reactions with tool-joint thread
lubricants containing sulfur
Hydrogen Sulfide Cont’d

 Hydrogen sulfide is soluble in water.

 Dissolved hydrogen sulfide behaves as a weak
acid and causes pitting.
 Hydrogen ions at the cathodicareas may enter
the steel instead of evolving from the surface as
a gas.
 This process can result in hydrogen blistering in
low-strength steels or hydrogen embitterment in
high-strength steels.
 Both the hydrogen and sulfide components of
hydrogen sulfide can contribute to drillstring
failures.
Treatment

Hydrogen sulfide corrosion is mitigated by

increasing the pH to above 9.5 and by using
sulfide scavengers and film-forming inhibitors.
 Sulfide scavengers include Zinc Carbonate, Zinc
Oxide and other specialty chemical products
 Most film forming inhibitors are amine inhibitors,
many are available
Carbon Dioxide
 Carbon dioxide is found in natural gas in varying
quantities.
 When combined with water, carbon dioxide forms
carbonic acid and decreases the water's pH, which
increases the water's corrosivity.
 While carbon dioxide is not as corrosive as oxygen, it
can cause pitting.
 Maintaining the correct pH is the primary treatment
for carbon dioxide contamination.
 Either lime or caustic soda can be used to maintain
pH.
Bacteria
 Microorganisms can cause fermentation of
organic mud additives, changing viscosity and
lowering pH.
 A sour odor and gas are other indicators that
bacteria are present.
 Degradation of mud additives can result in
increased maintenance cost.
 Microbiocidesare used to control bacteria in
drilling environments.
Dissolved Salts
 Dissolved salts increase corrosion by
decreasing the electrical resistance of drilling
fluids and increasing the solubility of
corrosion by-products.
 Some of these byproducts can cause a scale
or film to form on the surface of the metal.
 Amine filming agents added to the metal will
aid in reducing corrosion due to dissolved
salts.
Drill String

Drill Pipes
HWDP
Drill Collars
Stabilizers
Bits
Section 1

Surface Holes
Surface Holes
 Drill this section with Spud Mud
(Fresh Water + Prehydrated Bentonite +
Lime)
 HEC may be added to develop additional
viscosity.
 Prepare the spud mud in advance to allow
enough time for the mud to develop
adequate gel and viscosity.
Surface Holes
 Before mixing the spud mud make sure that
the chloride conc. is less than 10,000 mg/l.
 If water is sweet, mix 15 Lb/bbl of bentonite
other wise viscosity will be to much. At The
same time mix one tank with 25 Lb/bbl just in
case.
 Lime can be added from the hopper with no
fear on the spud mud, but if using a polymer
mud (upcoming sections.), lime is poured
slowly from a barrel so as not to burn the
polymer.
Surface Holes
 Add water to the shaker pit to accelerate
settling of fine solids in the sand trap.
 Always have your Hi- Vis ready, with
adequate volumes, especially if drilling in a
loss circulation formation.
Section 2

Loss Circulation Formations

Loss Circulation Formations
 If loss of circulation occurs, switch from
spud mud to water and gelslips (heavy
weighted spud mud) “Hi- Vis pills”
pumped at intervals to clean the hole
and pump mud caps from the annulus
every interval.
Section 3

Shale Formations
Shale Formations
 At this section do not use spud mud and use
any polymer mud (ex: KCl polymer mud), as
bentonite has a very high fluid loss increasing
possibility of shale sloughing and makes a
thick filter cake.
 Add Black Nite and Soltex for pore paving and
Glycol for dehydration and KCL to prevent
bentonite in the formation from swelling.
 Add 15Lb/bbl Wall nut shell to the Hi- Vis to
minimize chances of bit balling.
General Notes

About Cementing and Handling

General Notes on Casing
 After casing and cement, clean trip tank,
prepare short system to drill water.
 When running a cement job always check
barrels of cement pumped and displaced.
 Check salinity of water before cementing.
 Salts helps cement to shock rapidly, only
added in top jobs. It is prohibited to use it in
spacer.
General Notes on Handling
 For preparing a new section, always assume
you will mix 5000 bbls of mud incase of
losses.
 Be careful, check with derrikman when to fill
the trip tank for the driller to pump mud cap.
 Always use a lesser amount of chemicals than
calculated then add gradually to control
properties, also putting in mind that we
sometimes use more than calculated because
of lack of purity in chemical products.
General Notes on Handling
 Gain in pressure means:
1. Blocking (either by shale, or drilled solids or
formation collapse).
 Loss in pressure means:
1. One or more nozzle fell (pressure drop is
stable doesn’t increase or decrease).
2. Circulation loss (no return on shaker).
3. Drill pipe cracked (pressure drop will
increase gradually).
Terminology
 Atomic Number= number of electrons orbiting the
nucleus.
 Atomic Weight= sum of protons + neutrons in the
nucleus.
 Isotopes= Same element having different number
of neutrons, therefore possessing different atomic
weight.
 Valence Number= If an element has 1 e’ to give, it
valence of +1, if an element has 1 e’ to gain, it
valence is -1. The sum of all valence numbers of all
the elements in a compound must be equal to zero.
Cont’d
 Radical= Combination of elements that behaves as
if it were a single element. Ex: CO3--,HCO3-, OH-,
SO4--, NO3-.
 Formula weight= sum of all atomic weights
present in a compound.
 Mole= quantity of a compound equal to its formula
weight as expressed in grams.
 Equivalent weight= is equal to the formula weight
of that compound divided by its net positive valence
expressed in grams.
Densities
 mg/l = 0.001 grams of a substance in one liter of
solution.
 mM/l= moles of solute/ liter of solution = mg/l
 ppm= 1 gram of solute in 1,000,000 ml = mg/l
This assumption holds true for most mud engineering
purposes, except in high chloride concentrations,
ppm= mg/l + SG of solution.
 epm= 1 equivalent dissolved in 1,000,000 ml of sol.
 Normality= number of equivalents of solute / liter
of solution.
1 N of sulfuric acid = 49 grams in 1 liter.