BASIC METEOROLOGICAL

PROCESSES
Objectives
 What is atmospheric thermodynamics?
 What are the variables of atmospheric thermodynamics?
 What is lapse rate?
 Explain the potential temperature.
 What is atmospheric stability and the various methods that
define atmospheric stability?
 What is boundary layer development?
 What are the effects of meteorology on plume dispersion?
 What is wind velocity profile?
 What is wind rose diagram and what are the uses of it?
 Determination of mixing height.
Air Pollution Meteorology

 Atmospheric thermodynamics

 Atmospheric stability

 Boundary layer development

 Effect of meteorology on plume dispersion

Atmosphere
 Pollution cloud is interpreted by the chemical composition and
physical characteristics of the atmosphere
 Concentration of gases in the atmosphere varies from trace
levels to very high levels
 Nitrogen and oxygen are the main constituents. Some
constituents such as water vapor vary in space and time.
 Four major layers of earth’s atmosphere are:
 Troposphere
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
Atmospheric
Thermodynamics
A parcel of air is defined using the state variables


 Three important state variables are density, pressure and temperature

 The units and dimensions for the state variables are

Density gm/cm3 ML-3

(mass/volume)

Pressure (Force/Area) N/m2 ( Pa ) ML-1T-2

Temperature o
F, o R, o C, o K T

 Humidity is the fourth important variable that gives the

amount of water vapor present in a sample of moist air
Equation of State

 Relationship between the three state variables may be written as:

 f ( P, ρ ,T) = 0

 For a perfect gas:

 P = ρ .R .T
 R is Specific gas constant

 R for dry air = 0.287 Joules / gm /oK

 R for water vapor = 0.461 Joules / gm /oK

 R for wet air is not constant and depend on mixing
ratio
Exercise

 Calculate the density of a gas with a molecular weight

of 29 @ 1 atm (absolute) and 80 oF. Gas constant, R =
0.7302 ft3atm/lb-moleoR.
Solution

Absolute Temperature = 80 oF + 460 = 540 oR

Density = P ( molecular weight) / RT
Density = ( 1atm. )*(29 lb/lb mole) / ( 0.7302 ft 3atm/lb-
moleoR)*(540 oR)
Density = 0.073546 lb/ ft3.
Exercise

 Determine the pressure, both absolute and gauge,

exerted at the bottom of the column of liquid 1 meter
high, with density of 1000 kg / m3.
Solution

 Step 1 :
Pgauge = (density of liquid) * ( acceleration due to
gravity) *(height of liquid column)
Step 2 :
Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmospheric

Pabsolute = 111.11 kPa

 Laws of Thermodynamics
First Law of Thermodynamics:

This law is based on law of conservation of total energy.

Heat added per unit mass = (Change in internal energy per unit mass)
+ (Work done by a unit mass) 
 δH = δU+δW
Second Law of Thermodynamics:
 This law can be stated as "no cyclic process exists having the transference of heat
from a colder to hotter body as its sole effect"
 Specific Heat
 Defined as the amount of heat needed to change the temperature of unit mass by 1oK.

 Specific heat at constant volume

Cv = lim δQ
δT→0 δT α = const

 Specific heat at constant pressure

Cp = lim δQ
δT→0 δT p = const

Relationship between Cv and Cp is given by Carnot’s law:


For perfect gas, Cp – Cv = R

For dry air Cp = (7/2)*R (Perfect diatomic gas)
Cv = (5/2)*R (Perfect diatomic gas)
 Ratio of Cp and Cv for dry air is 1.4
Cpd = 1.003 joules/gm/o K ; Cvd = 0.717 joules/gm/o K
Processes in the Atmosphere

 An air parcel follows several different paths when it moves from one
point to another point in the atmosphere. These are:
 Isobaric change – constant pressure
 Isosteric change – constant volume
 Isothermal change – constant temperature
 Isentropic change – constant entropy (E)
 Adiabatic Process – δQ = 0 (no heat is added or

removed )

 The adiabatic law is P. αγ = constant


E = Q
 T
Statics of the Atmosphere

 Vertical variation of the parameters = ?

Hydrostatic Equation:
pvariation in a "motionless"
 Pressure 1 atmosphere
p
.g or  g
z  z

 Pressure variation in an atmosphere:

1 p d 2 z
g 
 z dt 2

 Relationship between pressure and elevation using

gas law: 1 p  g

p z Rd T
Statics of the Atmosphere
z
  g
 p  gives
Integration of the above equation 
ln   
  0 T . dz 
1


 po   Rd

 Using the initial condition Z=0, P = P0

 The above equation indicates that the variation
of pressure depends on vertical profile of
temperature.
 For iso-thermal atmosphere
p   g 1 
 exp  To . z 


po  Rd 

 Therefore, pressure decreases exponentially

with height at a ratio of 12.24 mb per 100m.
 Lapse Rate:
 Lapse rate is the rate of change of temperature with
height
 Lapse rate is defined as Γ = -δT
δz
 Value of  Γ varies throughout the atmosphere

 Potential Temperature:
 Concept of potential temperature is useful in comparing two air
parcels at same temperatures and different pressures.
 Concept of Potential Temperature

θ
Atmosphere Stability

 The ability of the atmosphere to enhance or to resist atmospheric

motions

 Influences the vertical movement of air.

 If the air parcels tend to sink back to their initial level after the
lifting exerted on them stops, the atmosphere is stable.

 If the air parcels tend to rise vertically on their own, even when
the lifting exerted on them stops, the atmosphere is unstable.

 If the air parcels tend to remain where they are after lifting stops,
the atmosphere is neutral.
Atmospheric Stability

 The stability depends on the ratio of suppression to

generation of turbulence

 The stability at any given time will depend upon static stability
( related to change in temperature with height ), thermal
turbulence ( caused by solar heating ), and mechanical
turbulence (a function of wind speed and surface roughness).
Atmospheric Stability
 Atmospheric stability can be determined using adiabatic lapse rate.

Γ > Γd Unstable

Γ = Γd Neutral

Γ < Γd Stable

 Γ is environmental lapse rate

 Γd is dry adiabatic lapse rate (10c/100m) and dT/dZ = -10c /100 m
Atmospheric Stability
Classification
 Schemes to define atmospheric stability are:

P- G Method

P-G / NWS Method

The STAR Method

BNL Scheme

Sigma Phi Method

Sigma Omega Method

Modified Sigma Theta Method

NRC Temperature Difference Method

Wind Speed ratio (UR) Method

Radiation Index Method

AERMOD Method (Stable and Convective cases)
Pasquill-gifford Stability
Categories
Daytime Insolation Nighttime cloud cover

Surface Wind
Speed (m/s) Thinly overcast
Strong Moderate Slight or 4/8 low 3/8
cloud

<2 A  A-B B - -

2-3 A-B B C E F

3-5 B B-C C D E

5-6 C C-D D D D

>6 C D D D D

Source: Met Monitoring Guide – Table 6.3

Sigma Theta stability classification

CATEGORY PASQUILL CLASS SIGMA THETA (ST)

EXTREME UNSTABLE A ST>=22.5

MODERATE UNSTABLE B 22.5>ST>=17.5

SLIGHTLY UNSTABLE C 17.5>ST>=12.5

NEUTRAL D 12.5>ST>=7.5

SLIGHTLY STABLE E 7.5>ST>= 3.8

MODERATE STABLE F 3.8>ST>=2.1

2.1>ST
EXTREMELY STABLE G

Source: Atmospheric Stability – Methods & Measurements (NUMUG - Oct 2003)

Temperature Difference (∆T)

Source: Regulatory guide; office of nuclear regulatory research- Table 1

Turbulence

 Fluctuations in wind flow which have a frequency of more

than 2 cycles/ hr

 Types of Turbulence
 Mechanical Turbulence

Convective Turbulence
 Clear Air Turbulence
 Wake Turbulence
Local CLIMATOLOGICAL data - Toledo
Weather conditions of toledo
 Weather Station
 Home, Professional, and Live
 Weather Balloon
 Pressure, Temperature, Wind Speed, Wind Direction, & Humidity
 Use of Towers
 Velocity, Temperature, & Turbulence
Local CLIMATOLOGICAL data - Toledo

Snowfall Temperature
Annual 38.3” Annual 49.6°F
December 9.1” January 25.7°F
January 9.8” July 73.2°F
February 8.0”
Precipitation
March 6.3”
Annual 31.62”
January 2.18”
June 3.45”
 Greatest snowfall – 73.1” (1997-1998)
 Least snowfall – 6.0” (1889-1890)
 Average number of days with a tenth of an inch or more snowfall – 27
days
National Weather Map

 US Forecast
National Air Quality

 Ozone
Climate

 Temperature
 National Weather Map

H – High Pressure Area

L – Low Pressure Area

•A high pressure area forecasts clear skies.

•A low pressure area forecasts cloudiness and precipitation
Boundary Layer Development
 Boundary Layer Development

Thermal boundary Layer (TBL) development depends on two factors:
 Convectively produced turbulence

Mechanically produced turbulence


Development of TBL can be predicted by two distinct approaches:
 Theoretical approach

Experimental studies
Boundary Layer Development

 Theoretical approach may be classified into three groups:


Empirical formulae
 Analytical solutions

Numerical models
 One layer models
 Higher order closure models
TBL using Analytical Solution

Time Time

Time
Time
Effects of Meteorology on
Plume Dispersion
 Effects of Meteorology on
Plume Dispersion

Dispersion of emission into atmosphere depends on various
meteorological factors.


Height of thermal boundary layer is one of the important factors
responsible for high ground level concentrations


At 9 AM pollutants are pulled to the ground by convective eddies


Spread of plume is restricted in vertical due to thermal boundary height
at this time
 Wind Velocity
 A power law profile is used to describe the variation of wind speed with
height in the surface boundary layer

U = U1 (Z/Z1)p
Where,
U1 is the velocity at Z1 (usually 10 m)
U is the velocity at height Z.
The values of p are given in the following table.
Stability Class Rural p Urban p

Very Unstable 0.07 0.15

Neutral 0.15 0.25

Very Stable 0.55 0.30
Beaufort Scale
 This scale is helpful in getting an idea on the magnitude of wind speed
from real life observations

Atmospheric Wind speed Comments

condition
Calm < 1mph Smoke rises vertically

Light breeze 5 mph Wind felt on face

Gentle breeze 10 mph Leaves in constant motion

Strong 25 mph Large branches in motion

Violent storm 60 mph Wide spread damage
Wind Rose Diagram (WRD)

Wind Direction (%)

Wind Speed (mph)

Wind Rose Diagram (WRD)

 WRD provides the graphical summary of the frequency

distribution of wind direction and wind speed over a period
of time
 Steps to develop a wind rose diagram from hourly
observations are:
 Analysis for wind direction

Determination of frequency of wind in a given
wind direction

Analysis for mean wind speed

Preparation of polar diagram
Calculations for Wind Rose

% Frequency =
Number of observations * 100/Total Number of
Observations

Direction: N, NNE, ------------------------,NNW, Calm

Wind speed: Calm, 1-3, 4-6, 7-10, -----------

Determination of Maximum
Mixing Height
 Steps to determine the maximum mixing height for a day are:


Plot the temperature profile, if needed
 Plot the maximum surface temperature for the day
on the graph for morning temperature profile

Draw dry adiabatic line from a point of maximum
surface temperature to a point where it intersects
the morning temperature profile
 Read the corresponding height above ground at the
point of intersection obtained. This is the maximum
mixing height for the day
Determination of Maximum
Mixing Height
Power plant Plumes in
Michigan Monroe Power Plant
Power plant Plumes in
Michigan Trenton Channel
Power plant Plumes in
Michigan Belle River Power Plant

River Rouge Power Plant

Photo credit:  Kimberly M. Coburn

PROBLEMS
 During an air pollution experiment the lapse rate was a constant at 1.1 °C per
100 m. If the atmosphere is assumed to behave as a perfect gas and the sea
level temperature and pressure were 16 °C and 1 atm, at what altitude was
the pressure one-third the sea level?
Solution
 Step1:

 Step 2:
Calculate Temperature

 Step 3:
Substitute for temperature
 Step 4:
Integrate between P = 1 and P = 0.333, and between z = 0, and z = z.

Z = 7817.13m
What are Today’s Air Pollution
Problems?

 Photochemical Smog: While much of Europe and North America has significantly
reduced levels of photochemical smog over the last few decades, much of developing
world has not. For example, ozone concentrations in Delhi today are comparable to
those in Los Angeles in the 1960s and 1970s.
 Fine Particulate Matter: Air pollution control programs over the last decades have
generally been more successful at controlling ozone precursors than fine particulate
matter and its impacts have become proportionally more significant.
 Hazardous Air Pollutants: Vary significantly by region but in many cases can
represent significant public health risks.
 Occupational Exposures: Despite advances in worker protection, there are still
many occupations throughout the world where workers are exposed to unsafe levels
of air pollutants.
 Indoor Air Quality: In many parts of the world, exposure to pollutants in indoor
environments can greatly exceed outdoor exposures. This is especially the case
among women who disproportionately are impacted by exposures associated with
poorly ventilated cookstoves.

55
The Role of Traffic-Related Air Pollution

 The rise of both the automobile and trucks fundamentally shifted the
nature of air pollution emissions from fixed (stationary) locations to
mobile sources. Since these pollution sources are tied to human
mobility it is much more difficult to avoid human exposure to their
emissions than is the case for industrial sources.
 Both spark ignition (e.g. gasoline) and compression ignition (Diesel)
engines typically use hydrocarbon-based fuels and operate at high-
temperatures thereby producing both VOC and nitrogen oxides (ozone
precursors) in their combustion process.
 Diesel engines also produce significant quantities of very fine particles
with more than 90% less than one micrometer in diameter.
 Although emissions control systems have been extremely effective at
reducing these emissions, the shear numbers of vehicles operating still
makes them an area of concern for human health.

56
Discussion

 Air pollution is a multi-step process

 Compounds are emitted into the atmosphere by both man-made and natural
sources (emissions sources)
 The compounds are mixed, dispersed and transported by meteorological
conditions (transport phenomena)
 As these components are being mixed and transported, they are undergoing
chemical reactions that can remove, transform or produce new compounds
(atmospheric chemistry)
 At some point this parcel of air will reach an individual who, through normal
respiration, will bring a portion of this parcel into his/her lungs where the
compounds will have an opportunity to interact with the lung tissues before
being exhaled (respiration)
 These compounds can have an influence on the individual (health effects)
 Over the coming lectures we will explore each of these steps in more
detail and discuss how policies and technologies can alter the overall
chain-of-events.
57
Research Gaps and Future Directions

 At present, our understanding of the impacts of ozone on human

health are relatively more advanced that our understanding of the
influence of particulate matter, especially very fine particles (e.g.
Diesel particulate matter).
 The potential impact of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) and, in
particular, mobile source air toxics (MSATs) continues to evolve and
will likely remain an area of uncertainty for years to come.
 The electrification of transportation, one of emerging trends in
mobility, is likely to significantly impact the distribution of emissions
over the coming decades.

58
Take-Home Messages

 Air pollution is not a new problem and changes in technologies are

likely to continue to challenge us to anticipate how these changes are
likely to impact air quality and human health.
 As our understanding of emissions, atmospheric chemistry and human
health impacts continue to evolve, it is likely that we will recognize
that some decisions that we have made in the past, or are making
now, will likely need to be revisited based on this future knowledge.
 Although public policies will continue to guide our responses to air
pollution issues, individual decision making will remain an important
determinant of how well these policies work.

59
References

 Met Monitoring Guide:

http://www.webmet.com/met_monitoring/toc.html
 Regulatory Guide – office of nuclear regulatory research:
http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/reg-guide
s/power-reactors/active/01-023/01-023r1.pdf
 NOAA-National Climate Data Center