Ethics

 come from the Greek word “ethos” meaning character in plural

“manners” or custom.

 It refers to a philosophical concept of morality, endeavors to

understand moral concepts and justify moral principles. It
analyzes concepts such as right and wrong, and seeks to
establish principles of right behavior that may serve as guides
to action for people to follow. (Pojaman, 1992)

 as an academic discipline helps us understand and adapt to

situations that affect our lives.

 Ethics as a subject for us to study is about determining the

grounds for the values with particular and special significance
to human life.
Morality
 a system of behavior in regards to standards of
what is right and wrong behavior.
Values
 describe the personal qualities we choose to
embody to guide our actions.

 Values are the motive behind purposeful

action. They are the ends to which we act and
come in many forms. 
 The Importance of
Rules to Social Beings
Rules
 are guidelines of people, the law or the way
to control our movements. In order for
someone to gain control of a situation or
other people we set rules for them to follow.
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating
behavior.

 Rules build boundaries that pace limits on

behavior. Rules are usually coupled with means
to impose consequences on those who violate
them, one of the reasons people follow accepted
rules is to avoid negative consequences.
 There is a certain punishment or fine each differ
to what kind of violation or rules is undertaken.
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain
rights and freedom.

 Rules from frameworks for society. Nations are

generally nations of laws and the governing principles
are outlined in what is called constitution. Because the
majority has agreed to follow and consent to be
governed by such constitution, the freedoms outlined
exist
3. . Rules produce a sense of justice among
social beings.

 Rules are needed in order to keep the strong from

dominating the weak, that is, to prevent
exploitation and domination
 To maintain balance and sustain equilibrium
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic
system.

 Without rules regulating business, power would

centralize around monopolies and threaten the strength
and competitiveness of the system. Rules are needed to
ensure product safety, employee safety, and product
quality. Copyright and patents help protect people’s
intellectual property. Rules and regulations also keep
the banking system stable so as to avoid depression and
the like.
MORAL VS. NON-MORAL
STANDARDS
Moral Standards

 are norms that individuals or groups have about the

kinds of actions believed to be morally right or wrong,
as well as the values placed on what we believed to be
morally good or morally bad.

 Ethical principles that we live and believe. These are

the important blueprints of our behavior, which we
abide by daily, and are influenced by our society, or by
certain ethical universals.
Moral
 is an action which is considered
morally right or good.

Immoral
 is an action that is considered
morally wrong.

Amoral
 is one performed by someone who is
not morally aware, that is doesn’t
have any concepts or understanding
of right and wrong.
Non-moral standards

 Are those unwanted principles, which are in

opposition to everything that we are expected to be
and do.

 refers to standards by which we judge what is good

or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way.
What is Dilemma?

A dilemma is a situation where a person is

forced to choose between two or more
conflicting options, neither of which is
acceptable or preferable.
Moral Dilemma
 are situations where persons, who are called “moral agents” in
ethics, are forced to choose between two or more conflicting
options, neither of which resolves the situation in a morally
acceptable manner.

Example:

Lindsay is a deeply religious person; hence, she considers killing humans

absolutely wrong. Unfortunately, it is found out that Lindsay is having an
ectopic pregnancy. As is well known, an ectopic pregnancy is a type of
pregnancy that occurs outside the uterus, most commonly in the fallopian
tubes. In other words, in ectopic pregnancy, the fetus does not develop in the
uterus. Now, if this happens, the development of the fetus will definitely
endanger the mother. Thus, if Lindsay continues with her pregnancy, then
there is a big possibility that she will die. According to experts, the best way
to save Lindsay’s life is to abort the fetus, which necessarily implies killing
the fetus. If we do not abort the fetus, then Lindsay, as well as the fetus, will
die.
Three levels of Moral Dilemma
1.Individual
 Judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights
and justice.

Example: The most common ethical dilemma is involved when you are taking someone to
hospital for an emergency treatment by car. The law states that speeding and running red lights
is illegal. However, this person might die if not treated quickly and they are in your car.

2.Organization-
 The organizing dilemma is a puzzle posed by the dual necessities of social organization and
member self-interest Depending on members‘ definitions of self, the organizing dilemma may
exist between personal interests and organizational welfare, or between group interests and
organizational well-being.

Example: Sexually harassing female employees in an organization is an unethical behavior in the

work place (Andrews, 2014).

3. Systemic
 is predisposed by the larger operating environment of the company.
Foundations of Morality
1. CARE & HARM

 Values of kindness, gentleness, and nurturance. We have an ability to

care for and be attached to others. We also have the ability to feel
and dislike the pain of others.

2.  FAIRNESS & CHEATING

 When we help or are kind to others, we value those who reciprocate.
From this generates ideas of justice, rights, and autonomy. It also
touches on proportionality – that people take their “fair share”.

3. LOYALTY & BETRAYAL

Humans have an ability to form shifting coalitions and we value those
who are loyal to those coalitions. From this comes ideas of patriotism
and self-sacrifice for the group.
4. AUTHORITY & SUBVERSION

 Humans also have an ability to form hierarchical social

interactions. This foundation underlies virtues of
leadership and followership, including deference to
legitimate authority and respect for traditions.

5. SANCTITY & DEGRADATION

 This foundation was shaped by the psychology of disgust

and contamination. It underlies notions of striving to
live in an elevated, less carnal, more noble way. It
underlies the widespread idea that the body is a temple
which can be desecrated by immoral activities and
contaminants.
What is Freedom?

 freedom distinguishes the person from other creatures,

especially to his nearest kin – the brutes.

 Freedom is about making our way within the limits of

physical and material entanglements.

 We either live in a life of virtue or vice. To live in either

way depends on our choices
 REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS MINIMUM
REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY
Reason
 is the basis or motive for an action, decision, or conviction. As a
quality, it refers to the capacity for logical, rational, and analytic
thought; for consciously making sense of things, establishing and
verifying facts, applying common sense and logic, and justifying, and
if necessary, changing practices, institutions, and beliefs based on
existing or new existing information.

Impartiality
 involves the idea that each individual’s interests and point of view
are equally important. Itis a principle of justice holding that decisions
ought to be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of
bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another
for improper reasons.
Chapter 2:

The Moral Agent(Part I)

MORAL AGENT
Moral agency is the capacity to
make moral decisions based on the
perception of right and wrong.

A moral agent is any person or

collective entity with the capacity to
exercise moral agency.

It is suggested that rational thought

and deliberation are prerequisite
skills for any agent.
CULTURE IN MORAL
BEHAVIOR
Culture refers to the cumulative
deposit of knowledge, experience,
beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings,
hierarchism religion, notions of time,
roles, spatial relations, concepts of
the universe, and material objects
and possessions acquired by a group
of people in the course of
generations through individual group
striving.
CULTURE IN MORAL
BEHAVIOR
Culture talks about:
 Moral Values and behaviors
 Knowledge, beliefs, symbols
that they accept

“Learning culture is an essential

part of human development.”
CULTURE IN MORAL
BEHAVIOR
Characteristics of culture:

 Learned
 Shared
 Transmitted
 Changing
CULTURE IN MORAL
BEHAVIOR
Social learning is the process by
which individuals acquire knowledge
from others in the groups to which
they belong, as a normal part of
childhood.
The process by which children
socially learn the culture, including
morality of those around them is
called enculturation or
socialization.
CULTURE IN MORAL
BEHAVIOR
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
 emphasizes the importance of
observing, modelling, and imitating
the behaviors, attitudes, and
emotional reactions of others.

3 BASIC MODELS OF
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
 Live model
 Symbolic model
 Verbal instructional model
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
 The ability to understand a culture on its own
terms and not to make judgments using the
standard of one's culture.

 Moral Relativism fundamentally believes that

no act is good or bad objectively, and there is
no single objective universal standard
through which we can evaluate the truth of
moral judgements.

 The goal of this is to promote understanding

of cultural practices that are not typically
part of one's own culture.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
CULTURAL RELATIVISM: An Analysis
 In proposing that there is no
independent standard in ethics,
moral relativism does encourage
tolerance.

 Without a doubt, tolerance is

necessary for people of different
cultural origins to co-exist and live
peacefully in a society.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM: An Analysis
 Cultural Relativism discourages
analytical thinking and independent
decision-making in Ethics as it
requires unsuspecting compliance
and subscription to social norms.

 Logically, Cultural Relativism is

inconsistent in promoting tolerance
while teaching that no culture is
morally superior or more progressive
than others.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM: An Analysis
The bad consequences of cultural
relativism:

a.We could no longer say that the

customs of other societies are morally
inferior to our own.
b.We could decide whether actions are
right or wrong just by consulting the
standards of our society.
c. The idea of moral progress is called
into doubt.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM: An Analysis
Rachels’ Evaluation of Cultural
Relativism
 Rachels logically analyzed the cultural
relativism’s line of thinking.
 He explains that the cultural
relativists’ approach is to argue from
facts about the differences between
cultural outlooks to a conclusion about
the status of morality.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM: An Analysis
Rachels’ Evaluation of Cultural
Relativism
 The Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the dead,
whereas the Callatians believed it was right to eat the
dead. Therefore, eating the dead is neither
objectively right nor objectively wrong. It is merely a
matter of opinion, which varies culture to culture.

 The Eskimos see nothing wrong with infanticide,

whereas we believe that infanticide is immoral.
Therefore, infanticide is neither objectively right nor
objectively wrong. It is merely a matter of opinion,
which varies from culture to culture.
 MORAL RELATIVISM
The idea that there is no
universal or absolute set of
moral principles.
Societies make their moral
choices based on their
unique beliefs, customs, and
practices.
People tend to believe that
the “right” moral values are
the values that exist in their
own culture.
ASIAN MORAL UNDERSTANDING
 Asian Ethics is very much about the
protocol and showing of respect.
Asian Ethics is said to be much more
about doing what is right in terms of
what is expected of someone by
family, society, and culture.

 On the other hand, Western Ethics is

claimed to have more of a stress on
self and what is rationally or
logically true.
 ASIAN MORAL UNDERSTANDING
Western Ethics Eastern Ethics

Focus Finding Truth Protocol and Respect

Basis Rational Thought Religious Teachings

Emphasis Logic, Cause and Effect Respect Towards Family

Roots in Athens, Rome and Judeo Christianity Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism

Approach Rational Holistic and Cultural

Conflict and Harmony Good must triumph over evil Good and Bad, Light and Dark all exist in
equilibrium
FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTER: Strengths and Weaknesses

1.Pakikisama: is having and maintaining “good public

relations.”

2.Hiya: is described as a feeling of lowliness, shame or

embarrassment and inhibition or shyness which is
experienced as somewhat distressing, integrally hiya is
related to the concept of “face” and a concern with
how one appears in the eyes of others.

3.Amor Propio: is derived from the concept of “face”.

Although commonly translated as “self-respect” or
“self-esteem”, “amor proporio” has been characterized
as the high degree of sensitivity that makes a person
intolerant to criticism and causes him to have an easily
wounded pride.
FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTER: Strengths and Weaknesses

4. Utang na loob: a fundamental aspect of

upholding group harmony and relationships that
demand the balancing of obligations and debts.

5.Filipino Hospitality: refers to the innate

ability and trait of Filipinos to be courteous and
entertaining to their guests.

6. Respect to Elders: we Filipinos, are not only

respectful to elders, but also have unique ways
of expressing this respect to elders.
FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTER: Strengths and Weaknesses

7.Colonial mentality: Filipino character which

refers to lack of patriotism or active awareness,
appreciation and love for the country.

8. Lack of discipline: Our poor time

management, carelessness, taking shortcuts and
making “palusot” or excuses depict this
weakness of the Filipino moral character.

9. Extreme personalism: manifested as the

tendency to give personal interpretations to
actions.
 UNIVERSAL VALUES
 are values that apply to all types of human
beings, regardless of their social, ethnic or
cultural origin.

 the claim for universal values can be

attributed into two ways:
 it could be that something has
universal value when everybody finds it
valuable.
 when all people have reason to believe
it has value.
 UNIVERSAL VALUES
Peace
 when people are able to resolve their conflicts
without violence and can work together to
improve the qualities of their lives.

Democracy
 control of an organization or group by the majority
of its members.

Equality
 status of being equal, especially in status, rights,
and opportunities.
 UNIVERSAL VALUES
Human rights
 rights inherit to all human beings

Freedom
 the ability to act or change without constraint.

Justice
 the state of being fair.

Love
 deep care and concern for others, encompassing
all of the attributes.
 CHAPTER 3:
The Moral Agent
(Part II)
MORAL CHARACTER AND VIRTUES

 Moral character refers to the existence

or lack of virtues such as integrity,
courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty.

 To say that a certain person has a

good moral character means that
he/she is a good person and a good
citizen with a sound moral compass.
MORAL CHARACTER AND VIRTUES

 The term “character” is derived from the greek

word “charakter”, which was initially used as a
mark impressed upon a coin.

 The word “character” later came to mean a

distinct mark by which one thing was
distinguished from others, and then chiefly to
mean the assemblage of qualities that
distinguish one person from another.
 Character Development through Virtue
Ethics

 For Aristotle, virtuous behavior means practicing moderation.

 Doctrine of the mean is a principle that suggests that a moral behavior

is one that is in the middle of two extremes.
 Moral Character as Dispositions

 Dispositions are particular kinds of properties or characteristics that

objects can possess.
 Moral character traits are those dispositions of character for which it is
appropriate to hold agents morally responsible.
 Moral character traits are relatively stable, fixed and reliable
dispositions of action and affect that ought to be rationally formed.
 It is something that springs from the will of the moral agent.
 The Circular Relation of Acts and
Character

A. Repetition of action and its effect on the person

 Actions can be repetitive in three different ways: By habit

By education
By habitus
 The Circular Relation of Acts and
Character

B. The type of action

 Acts of human being (actus humanus) / Acts of man

 Human acts (actus humanis)
 The Circular Relation of Acts and
Character

C. Intention and Responsibility

 Humans own their actions and the consequences of them.

 The will is the rational power of human beings to act.
 The human being is self-governing.
 STAGES OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
 Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a
theory that focuses on how children develop morality
and moral reasoning.

 The theory also suggests that moral logic is primarily

focused on seeking and maintaining justice.
 HEINZ DILEMMA
 “In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of
cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might
save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the
same town had recently discovered. The drug was
expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten
times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for
the radium and charged $2000 for a small dose of the
drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone
he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get
together about $1000 which is half of what is cost. He told
the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell
it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I
discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.”
So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man’s store to
steal the drug for his wife.”
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment
Orientation
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange

Level 2 – Conventional morality

Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order

Level 3 – Post-conventional morality

Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights
Stage 6. Universal Principles
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Level 1 - Preconventional morality
 the first stage of moral development,
and lasts until approximately age 9.
 At the preconventional level children
don’t have a personal code of
morality, and instead moral decisions
are shaped by the standards of adults
and the consequences of following or
breaking their rules.
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment
Orientation.
 The child/individual is good in order to
avoid being punished. If a person is
punished, they must have done wrong.

Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange.

 At this stage, children recognize that
there is not just one right view that is
handed down by the authorities.
 STAGES OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
Level 2 - Conventional morality
 characterized by an acceptance of
social rules concerning right and
wrong.
 Authority is internalized but not
questioned, and reasoning is
based on the norms of the group
to which the person belongs.
 STAGES OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships
 The child/individual is good in order to
be seen as being a good person by
others. Therefore, answers relate to the
approval of others.

Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order

 The child/individual becomes aware of
the wider rules of society, so judgments
concern obeying the rules in order to
uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
 STAGES OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
Level 3 - Postconventional morality
 characterized by an individuals’
understanding of universal ethical
principles.
 These are abstract and ill-defined,
but might include: the preservation
of life at all costs, and the
importance of human dignity.
 STAGES OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual
Rights
 The child/individual becomes aware that
while rules/laws might exist for the good
of the greatest number, there are times
when they will work against the interest
of particular individuals.
Stage 6. Universal Principles
 People at this stage have developed
their own set of moral guidelines which
may or may not fit the law.