Chapter Ten

The Internet

Data Communications and Computer

Networks: A Business User’s Approach
Eighth Edition
 After reading this chapter,
you should be able to:
• Discuss the responsibilities of the Internet
Protocol (IP) and how IP can be used to create a
connection between networks
• Identify both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses
• Discuss the responsibilities of the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and how it can be used
to create a reliable, end-to-end network
connection

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 After reading this chapter,
you should be able to (continued):
• Identify the relationships between TCP/IP and
the protocols ICMP, UDP, ARP, DHCP, NAT,
and tunneling protocols
• Describe the responsibility of the Domain Name
System and how it converts a URL into a dotted
decimal IP address

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 After reading this chapter,
you should be able to (continued):
• Describe the major Internet applications and
services
• Recognize that the Internet is constantly
evolving and that IPv6 and Internet2
demonstrate that evolution

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 Introduction

• Today’s present Internet is a vast collection of

thousands of networks and their attached
devices
• The Internet began as ARPANET during the
1960s
• One high-speed backbone connected several
university, government, and research sites
– Backbone was capable of supporting 56 kbps
transmission speeds and eventually became
financed by the National Science Foundation
(NSF)
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 Introduction (continued)

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 Internet Protocols

• To support the Internet and all its services, many

protocols are necessary
• Some of the protocols that we will look at:
– Internet Protocol (IP)
– Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
– Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
– Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
– Network Address Translation (NAT)

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 Internet Protocols (continued)

• Recall that the Internet with all its protocols follows

the TCP/IP protocol suite (Internet model)
– An application, such as e-mail, resides at the highest
layer
– A transport protocol, such as TCP, resides at the
transport layer
– The Internet Protocol (IP) resides at the Internet or
network layer
– A particular media and its framing resides at the
network access (or data link) layer

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 Internet Protocols (continued)

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 The Internet Protocol (IP)

• IP prepares a packet for transmission across the

Internet
• The IP header is encapsulated onto a transport
data packet
• The IP packet is then passed to the next layer
where further network information is
encapsulated onto it

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 The Internet Protocol (IP) (continued)

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 The Internet Protocol (IP) (continued)

• There are currently two versions of IP:

– Version 4, which has been in existence for many
years
– Version 6, which has been available for several
years but is only now starting to see a substantial
move towards replacing version 4
– Let’s take a look at both versions

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 IPv4

• Using IPv4, a router:

– Makes routing decisions based on the 32-bit
destination address
– May have to fragment the datagram into smaller
datagrams using Fragment Offset
– May determine that current datagram has been
hopping around the network too long and delete it
(Time to Live)

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 The IPv4 Header/Datagram

Figure 10-4
Format of the
IPv4 datagram

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 IPv4
• Fragmenting an IPv4 datagram is performed by
the Offset and More fields. Offset value is in
multiples of 8 bytes
Figure 10-5
Division of an IPv4
datagram into three
fragments

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 IPv4 Addresses

• All devices connected to Internet have a 32-bit

IP address
• Think of the IP address as a logical address
(possibly temporary), while the 48-bit address on
every NIC is the physical, or permanent address
• Computers, networks and routers use the 32-bit
binary address, but a more readable form is the
dotted decimal notation

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 IPv4 Addresses (continued)

• For example, the 32-bit binary address

10000000 10011100 00001110 00000111
translates to
128.156.14.7
in dotted decimal notation

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 IPv4 Addresses (continued)

• When IP addresses were originally created, they

were called classful addresses
– That is, each IP address fell into particular class
– A particular class address has a unique network
address size and a unique host address size
– There are basically five types of IP addresses:
Classes A, B, C, D and E

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 IPv4 Addresses (continued)

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 IPv4 Addresses (continued)

• When you examine the first decimal value in the

dotted decimal notation:
– All Class A addresses are in the range 0 - 127
– All Class B addresses are in the range 128 - 191
– All Class C addresses are in the range 192 – 223
– All Class D addresses are in the range 224 – 239
– All Class E addresses are in the range 240 - 255

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 IPv4 Addresses (continued)

• IP subnet masking
– Sometimes you have a large number of IP
addresses to manage
– By using subnet masking, you can break the host
ID portion of the address into a subnet ID and
host ID
– Example – subnet mask 255.255.255.0 applied to
a class B address will break the host ID (normally
16 bits) into an 8-bit subnet ID and an 8-bit host
ID

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 IPv4 Addresses (continued)

• Today, IP addresses are considered classless

addresses
– With classless addressing, companies (users) do
not apply for particular class of addresses
• Instead, company will get its IP addresses from an
Internet service provider (ISP)
• Most ISPs have already applied for a large number
of IP addresses and are willing to lease those
addresses to companies

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 IPv4 Addresses (continued)

• Example – instead of applying for two Class C

addresses, a company could contact an ISP, which
would lease 500 IP addresses to the company
• The addresses are not identified by any class – they
are simply a contiguous block of IP addresses
• Classless addressing has led to a much more
efficient allocation of the IP address space
– A company can lease only as many addresses as it
needs

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 Classless IPv4 Addresses

• An IP address in slash notation has all the info we

need about the block of addresses assigned to a
user/company
• For example, one address in a block of addresses is
167.199.170.82/27
– 27 bits belong to the network ID, and 5 bits belong to the
host ID (IPv4 addresses have 32 bits)
– The network mask has 27 1s followed by 5 0s. In dotted
decimal notation that is 255.255.255.224.
– The number of addresses in the block is 25 = 32

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 Classless IPv4 Addresses

• To find the first address, AND the address

(167.199.170.82) with the network mask
(255.255.255.224)
Address: 10100111 11000111 10101010 01010010
Mask: 11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000
Result: 10100111 11000111 10101010 01000000
Which in decimal is 167.199.170.64/27

The last address is 31 addresses past the first, or

167.199.170.95/27

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 IPv6

• The next version of the Internet Protocol

• Main features include:
– Simpler header
– 128-bit IP addresses
– Priority levels and quality of service parameters
– No fragmentation

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 IPv6 (continued)

Figure 10-6
The fields in the
IPv6 header

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 IPv6 Addresses

• IPv6 addresses are 128-bits in size (2128 is a

very large number!)
• They are also classless addresses, similar to
IPv4 addresses
• Because of their size, a number of conventions
have been adopted:

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 IPv6 Addresses

• Binary addresses are written using the short-

hand hexadecimal form:
0110 1010 0011 1110 1011 1010 … 1110 1111

6A3E : BA91 : 7221 : 0000 : 01FC : 922C : 877B : FFEF

• Four hex 0s in a row are truncated as follows:

6A3E : BA91 : 7221 : 0 : 01FC : 922C : 877B : FFEF

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 IPv6 Addresses

• Longer strings of 0s can be abbreviated further.

For example,
6A3E : BA91 : 0 : 0 : 0 : 0 : 877B : FFEF

• can be abbreviated as
6A3E : BA91 : : 877B : FFEF

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 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• TCP layer creates connection between sender

and receiver using port numbers
– The port number identifies a particular application
on a particular device (IP address)
• TCP can multiplex multiple connections (using
port numbers) over a single IP line

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 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
(continued)
• The TCP layer can ensure that the receiver is
not overrun with data (end-to-end flow control)
using the Window field
• TCP can perform end-to-end error correction
– Checksum
• TCP allows for the sending of high priority data
– Urgent Pointer

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 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
(continued)

Figure 10-7
The fields of
the TCP
header

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 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

• ICMP
– Used by routers and nodes
– Performs error reporting for the Internet Protocol
• ICMP reports errors such as invalid IP address,
invalid port address, and the packet has hopped
too many times

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 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

• A transport layer protocol used in place of TCP

• Where TCP supports a connection-oriented
application, UDP is used with connectionless
applications
• UDP also encapsulates a header onto an
application packet but the header is much
simpler than TCP (16-bit source port, 16-bit dest
port, 16-bit length of entire packet, 16-bit
checksum)

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 Multiprotocol Label Switching

• An additional layer often added above TCP

• Used to move Internet packets more quickly
through routers
• By using the MPLS label, the router does not
have to “dig in” so deep to retrieve IP address
• The 20-bit Label field is the key identifier that
connects this packet with a particular flow of
packets

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 Multiprotocol Label Switching

Figure 10-8
Two MPLS
headers and
their four fields

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 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

• When an IP packet has traversed the Internet and

encounters the destination LAN, how does the
packet find the destination workstation?
• Even though destination workstation may have an
IP address, a LAN does not use IP addresses to
deliver frames
– A LAN uses MAC layer address
• ARP translates IP address into MAC layer
address so frame can be delivered to proper
workstation
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 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP)
• An IP address can be assigned to a workstation
permanently (static assignment) or dynamically
– Dynamic IP address assignment is a more
efficient use of scarce IP addresses
– When DHCP client issues an IP request, DHCP
server looks in its static table
• If no entry exists, server selects an IP address
from available pool

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 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) (continued)
• The address assigned by DHCP server is
temporary
– Part of agreement includes specific period of time
• If no time period specified, the default is one hour
– DHCP clients may negotiate for a renewal before
the time period expires

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 Network Address Translation (NAT)

• NAT lets router represent entire local area

network to Internet as single IP address
– Thus, all traffic leaving LAN appears as
originating from global IP address
– All traffic coming into this LAN uses this global IP
address
• This security feature allows a LAN to hide all the
workstation IP addresses from the Internet

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 Network Address Translation (NAT)
(continued)
• Since the outside world cannot see into LAN,
you do not need to use registered IP addresses
on inside LAN
• We can use the following blocks of addresses
for private use:
– 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
– 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
– 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255

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 Network Address Translation (NAT)
(continued)
• When a user on inside sends packet to outside,
the NAT interface changes the user’s inside
address to global IP address
– This change is stored in a cache
• When the response comes back, the NAT looks
in cache and switches the addresses back
– If not the packet is dropped
• Unless NAT has a service table of fixed IP address
mappings
– This service table allows packets to originate from
the outside

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 Tunneling Protocols and Virtual Private
Networks (VPNs)
• The Internet is not normally a secure system
• If person wants to use Internet to access
corporate computer system, how can a secure
connection be created?
– One possible technique is by creating a virtual
private network (VPN)
• VPN creates a secure connection through the
Internet by using a tunneling protocol

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 The World Wide Web

• The World Wide Web (WWW) – immense

collection of web pages and other resources that
can be downloaded across the Internet and
displayed on a workstation via a web browser
and is the most popular service on the Internet
• Basic web pages are created with the Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML)
• Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP) is protocol
to transfer a web page

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 Locating a Document on the Internet

• Every document on the Internet has a unique

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
• All URLs consist of four parts:
– Service type
– Host or domain name
– Directory or subdirectory information
– Filename

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 Locating a Document on the Internet
(continued)

Figure 10-9
The parts of a
Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) for
HTTP (a) and FTP
(b)

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 Locating a Document on the Internet
(continued)
• When a user, running a Web browser, enters a URL, how
is URL translated into an IP address?
– Domain Name System (DNS) – large, distributed
database of URLs and IP addresses
• The first operation performed by DNS is to query a local
database for URL/IP address information
– If local server does not recognize address, the server at next
level will be queried
– Eventually root server for URL/IP addresses will be queried
» If root server has answer, results are returned
» If root server recognizes domain name but not extension in
front of domain name, root server will query server at
domain name’s location
» When domain’s server returns results, they are passed back
through chain of servers (and their caches)

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 Internet Services
• The Internet provides many types of services, including
several very common ones:
– Electronic mail (e-mail)
– File transfer protocol (FTP)
– Remote login (Telnet)
– VoIP (Voice over IP)
– Listservs
– Streaming audio and video
– Instant Messaging, Tweets, and Blogs

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 Electronic Mail (e-mail)

• E-mail programs can create, send, receive, and

store e-mails, as well as reply to, forward, and
attach non-text files
• Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) is
used to send e-mail attachments
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used to
transmit e-mail messages
• Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) and
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) are
used to hold and later retrieve e-mail messages
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 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

• Used to transfer files across the Internet

• User can upload or download a file
• The URL for an FTP site begins with ftp://…
• The three most common ways to access an FTP
site are:
– Through a browser
– Using a canned FTP program
– Issuing FTP commands at a text-based
command prompt

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 Remote Login (Telnet)

• Allows a user to remotely log in to a distant

computer site
• User usually needs a login and password to
access a remote computer site
• User saves money on long-distance telephone
charges

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 Voice Over IP (VoIP)

• The transfer of voice signals using a packet-

switched network and the IP protocol
• Voice over IP (VoIP) can be internal to a
company (private VoIP) or can be external using
the Internet
• VoIP consumes many resources and may not
always work well, but can be cost-effective in
certain situations

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 Voice Over IP (continued)

• Three basic ways to make a telephone call using

VoIP:
– PC to PC using sound cards and headsets (or
speakers and microphone)
– PC to telephone (need a gateway to convert IP
addresses to telephone numbers)
– Telephone to telephone (need gateways)

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 Voice Over IP (continued)

• Three functions necessary to support VoIP:

– Voice must be digitized (PCM, 64 kbps, fairly
standard)
– 64 kbps voice must be compressed
– Once the voice is compressed, the data must be
transmitted

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 Voice Over IP (continued)

• How can we transport compressed voice?

– H.323
• Created in 1996 by ITU-T
• Actually, H.323 created for a wide range of
applications both audio and video, and not for
TCP/IP networks
– Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
• Created by IETF specifically for supporting the
transfer of voice over the Internet
– Many feel SIP will surpass H.323

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 Voice Over IP (continued)

• ENUM
– A protocol that supports VoIP
– Converts telephone numbers to fully qualified
domain name addresses
– Example – telephone number (312) 555-1212 will
be converted to 2.1.2.1.5.5.5.2.1.3.1.e164.arpa

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 Listservs

• A popular software program used to create and

manage Internet mailing lists
• When an individual sends an e-mail to a listserv,
the listserv sends a copy of the message to all
listserv members
• Listservs can be useful business tools for
individuals trying to follow a particular area of
study

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 Streaming Audio and Video

• The continuous download of a compressed

audio or video file, which can be heard or
viewed on the user’s workstation
• Real-Time Protocol (RTP) and Real-Time
Streaming Protocol (RTSP) support streaming
audio and video
• Streaming audio and video consume a large
amount of network resources

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 Instant Messaging, Tweets, and Blogs

• IM allows a user to see if people are currently

logged in on the network and to send short
messages in real time
• Consumes less resources than e-mail, and
faster
• Tweets occur when you Twitter. Max 140
character messages
• Blogs are online web logs that people maintain

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 The Internet and Business

• E-Commerce – the buying and selling of goods

and services via the Internet
• Many agree that e-commerce consists of four
major areas:
– E-retailing
– Electronic data interchange (EDI)
– Micro-marketing
– Internet security

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 Cookies and State Information

• A cookie is data created by a Web server that is

stored on the hard drive of a user’s workstation
– This state information is used to track a user’s
activity and to predict future needs
• Information on previous viewing habits stored in
a cookie can also be used by other Web sites to
provide customized content
• Many consider cookies to be an invasion of
privacy

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 Intranets and Extranets

• An intranet is a TCP/IP network inside a

company that allow employees to access the
company’s information resources through an
Internet-like interface
• When an intranet is extended outside the
corporate walls to include suppliers, customers,
or other external agents, the intranet becomes
an extranet

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 The Future of the Internet

• Various Internet committees are constantly

working on new and improved protocols
• Examples include:
– Internet Printing Protocol
– Internet fax
– Extensions to FTP
– Common Name Resolution Protocol
– WWW Distributed Authoring and Versioning

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 Internet2

• A new form of the Internet is being developed by

a number of businesses and universities
• Internet2 will support very high-speed data
streams
• Applications might include:
– Digital library services
– Tele-immersion
– Virtual laboratories

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The Internet In Action: A Company Creates
a VPN
• A fictitious company wants to allow 3500 of its
workers to work from home
• If all 3500 users used a dial-in service, the
telephone costs would be very high

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The Internet In Action: A Company Creates
a VPN (continued)

Figure 10-10
CompuCom
employees
dialing directly
into the
corporate
computing
center

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The Internet In Action: A Company Creates
a VPN (continued)
• Instead, the company will require each user to
access the Internet via their local Internet
service provider
– This local access will help keep telephone costs
low
– Then, once on Internet, company will provide
software to support virtual private networks
– The virtual private networks will create secure
connections from the users’ homes into the
corporate computer system
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 The Internet In Action: A Company Creates
a VPN (continued)

Figure 10-11
CompuCom’s
employees
using a tunnel
across the
Internet into
the corporate
computing
center

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 Summary

• To support Internet, many protocols, such as IP, TCP,

ICMP, UDP, ARP, DHCP, and NAT, are necessary
• The Internet Protocol provides a connectionless transfer
of data over a wide variety of networks
• There are currently two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6
• The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) resides at the
transport layer and provides an error-free, end-to-end
connection
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) performs
error reporting for IP

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 Summary (continued)

• The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides a

connectionless transport layer protocol in place of TCP
• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) translates an IP
address into a CSMA/CD MAC address on a LAN
• The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) allows
a network to dynamically assign IP addresses to
workstations as they are needed
• Network Address Translation (NAT) allows a network to
replace local IP address with on global-type IP address

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 Summary (continued)

• Tunneling protocols allow a company to create

virtual private network connections into a
corporate computing system
• World Wide Web is vast collection of electronic
documents containing text and images that can
be accessed by simply clicking link within
browser’s Web page
• To locate document on Internet, you usually
refer to its Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

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 Summary (continued)

• Internet consists of many commonly used

network applications
• E-commerce is the buying and selling of goods
and services electronically
• Cookies store state information on user’s hard
drive and provide a way for Web sites to track a
user’s Web-browsing patterns and preferences

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 Summary (continued)

• Intranet is in-house Internet with Web-like

services that are available only to a company’s
employees or to customers and suppliers
through an extranet
• The Internet continues to evolve with a
completely new, higher-speed Internet2

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Eighth Edition 74
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