Chapter 2: Algorithm Discovery and Design

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Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn about

Representing algorithms

Examples of algorithmic problem solving

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Introduction


This chapter uses four problems to discuss algorithms and algorithmic problem solving
Multiplying two numbers Searching lists Finding maxima and minima Matching patterns

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Representing Algorithms


Natural language
Language spoken and written in everyday life Examples: English, Spanish, Arabic, and so on Problems with using natural language for algorithms
  

Verbose Imprecise Relies on context and experiences to give precise meaning to a word or phrase
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The Addition Algorithm of Figure 1.2 Expressed in Natural Language

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Step 1 set the value of carry to 0 Step 2 set the value of i to 0 Step 3 while the value of i is less than or equal to m 1, repeat the instructions in steps 4 6 Step 4 add the two digits a(i) and b(i) to the current value of carry to get c(i) Step 5 if c(i) is greater than 10 or equal to 10 then reset c(i) to c(i) 10 and reset the value of carry to 1; otherwise set the new value of carry to 0 Step 6 Add 1 to i Step 7 set c(m) to the value of carry Step 8 print out the final answer c(m) c(m-1)c(0) Step 9 stop
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Representing Algorithms (continued)



High-level programming language

Examples: C++, Java Problem with using a high-level programming language for algorithms


During the initial phases of design, we are forced to deal with detailed language issues

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The Beginning of the Addition Algorithm of Figure 1.2 Expressed in a High-Level Programming Language
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Pseudocode


English language constructs modeled to look like statements available in most programming languages Steps presented in a structured manner (numbered, indented, and so on) No fixed syntax for most operations is required

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Pseudocode (continued)


Less ambiguous and more readable than natural language Emphasis is on process, not notation Well-understood forms allow logical reasoning about algorithm behavior Can be easily translated into a programming language
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Flowchart
A graphical representation of an algorithm

standard symbols for each type of statement

flowchart examples
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Types of algorithmic operations



Sequential

Conditional

Iterative

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Sequential Operations


Computation operations
Example:
Set the value of variable to arithmetic expression

Variable


Named storage location that can hold a data value

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Sequential Operations (continued)



Input operations
To receive data values from the outside world Example


Get a value for r, the radius of the circle

Output operations
To send results to the outside world for display Example


Print the value of Area

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Algorithm for Computing Average Miles per Gallon

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Conditional and Iterative Operations



Sequential algorithm
Also called straight-line algorithm Executes its instructions in a straight line from top to bottom and then stops

Control operations
Conditional operations Iterative operations

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Conditional and Iterative Operations (continued)



Conditional operations
Ask questions and choose alternative actions based on the answers Example


if x is greater than 25 then print x else print x times 100

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Conditional and Iterative Operations (continued)



Iterative operations
Perform looping behavior, repeating actions until a continuation condition becomes false Loop


The repetition of a block of instructions

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Conditional and Iterative Operations (continued)

Examples


while j > 0 do set s to s + aj set j to j - 1 repeat print ak set k to k + 1 until k > n

repeat set total to total + value set i to i + 1 until i = 10

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Second Version of the Average Miles per Gallon Algorithm

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Conditional and Iterative Operations (continued)



Components of a loop
Continuation condition Loop body

Infinite loop
The continuation condition never becomes false An error

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Third Version of the Average Miles per Gallon Algorithm

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Conditional and Iterative Operations (continued)



Pretest loop
Continuation condition tested at the beginning of each pass through the loop It is possible for the loop body to never be executed While loop

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Conditional and Iterative Operations (continued)



Posttest loop
Continuation condition tested at the end of loop body Loop body must be executed at least once Do/While loop (Repeat-Until loop)

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2 Additional Constructs
CASE
CASE expression OF condition 1: sequence 1 condition 2: sequence 2 condition n: sequence n OTHERS: default sequence ENDCASE

FOR
FOR iteration bounds sequence ENDFOR

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2 Additional Constructs (examples)

FOR
FOR each number in series 1 to 10 total = total + value ENDFOR

CASE
CASE shape OF SQUARE : area = length * length RECTANGLE : area = length * breadth TRIANGLE : area = length * breadth / 2 ENDCASE

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Summary of Pseudocode Language Instructions

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Examples of Algorithmic Problem Solving

Go Forth and Multiply: Multiply two numbers using repeated addition Sequential search: Find a particular value in an unordered collection Find maximum: Find the largest value in a collection of data Pattern matching: Determine if and where a particular pattern occurs in a piece of text
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Example 1: Go Forth and Multiply



Task
Implement an algorithm to multiply two numbers, a and b, using repeated addition

Algorithm outline
Create a loop that executes exactly b times, with each execution of the loop adding the value of a to a running total

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Algorithm for Multiplication via Repeated Addition

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Example 2: Looking, Looking, Looking



Task
Find a particular persons name from an unordered list of telephone subscribers

Algorithm outline
Start with the first entry and check its name, then repeat the process for all entries

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Example 2: Looking, Looking, Looking (continued)



Algorithm discovery
Finding a solution to a given problem

Nave sequential search algorithm

For each entry, write a separate section of the algorithm that checks for a match Problems
 

Only works for collections of exactly one size Duplicates the same operations over and over
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Example 2: Looking, Looking, Looking (continued)



Correct sequential search algorithm

Uses iteration to simplify the task Refers to a value in the list using an index
(Array - single variable with one name and multiple parts)

Handles special cases (such as a name not found in the collection) Uses the variable Found to exit the iteration as soon as a match is found
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The Sequential Search Algorithm

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Example 2: Looking, Looking, Looking (continued)



The selection of an algorithm to solve a problem is greatly influenced by the way the data for that problem is organized

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Example 3: Big, Bigger, Biggest



Task
Find the largest value from a list of values

Algorithm outline
Keep track of the largest value seen so far (initialized to be the first in the list) Compare each value to the largest seen so far, and keep the larger as the new largest

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Example 3: Big, Bigger, Biggest (continued)



Once an algorithm has been developed, it may itself be used in the construction of other, more complex algorithms Library
A collection of useful algorithms An important tool in algorithm design and development

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Example 3: Big, Bigger, Biggest (continued)



Find Largest algorithm

Uses iteration and indices as in previous example

Updates location and largest so far when needed in the loop

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Figure 2.14 Algorithm to Find the Largest Value in a List

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Example 4: Meeting Your Match



Task
Find if and where a pattern string occurs within a longer piece of text

Algorithm outline
Try each possible location of pattern string in turn At each location, compare pattern characters against string characters

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Example 4: Meeting Your Match (continued)



Abstraction
Separating high-level view from low-level details Key concept in computer science Makes difficult problems intellectually manageable Allows piece-by-piece development of algorithms

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Example 4: Meeting Your Match (continued)



Top-down design
When solving a complex problem


Create high-level operations in the first draft of an algorithm After drafting the outline of the algorithm, return to the high-level operations and elaborate each one Repeat until all operations are primitives
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Example 4: Meeting Your Match (continued)



Pattern-matching algorithm
Contains a loop within a loop


External loop iterates through possible locations of matches to pattern Internal loop iterates through corresponding characters of pattern and string to evaluate match

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Final Draft of the Pattern-Matching Algorithm

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Summary


Algorithm design is a first step in developing an algorithm Algorithm design must

Ensure the algorithm is correct Ensure the algorithm is sufficiently efficient

Pseudocode is used to design and represent algorithms

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Summary


Pseudocode is readable, unambiguous, and able to be analyzed Algorithm design is a creative process; uses multiple drafts and top-down design to develop the best solution Abstraction is a key tool for good design

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