Computer

studies
Form three
work
1
 Table of contents
 Data representation in a computer

 Data processing

 Elementary programming principles

 System development
 Chapter
Data representation
1 in a
computer

3
Introduction
 In digital computers,
the user inputs is
converted and
transmitted as
electrical pulses that
can be represented by
two digits ‘1’ and ‘0’
before processing.
These two digits are
referred to as Binary
digits.
Sending data via a telephone line
 When a digital signal is to be
sent over analog telephone
lines e.g. e-mail, it has to be
converted to analog signal. This
is done by connecting a device
called a modem to the digital
computer. This process of
converting a digital signal to an
analog signal is known as
modulation. On the receiving
end, the incoming analog signal
is converted back to digital
form in a process known as
demodulation.
Concepts of data representation in digital computers

 Data and instructions cannot be entered and

processed directly into computers using
human language. Any type of data entered
must first be converted into machine-
readable form. (Binary form).
Computer together with it’s peripheral
devices handle data in it’s electronic
circuits, magnetic media and in optical
devices.
Data representation in electronic circuits

 Electronic components
such as microprocessor
are made up of millions
of electronic circuits.
Availability of a high
voltage (ON) in these
circuits is interpreted
as ‘1’ while a low
voltage (OFF) is
interpreted as ‘0’.
Data representation on magnetic media
 The presence of a
magnetic field in one
direction on magnetic
media is interpreted as
‘1’ while the absence
of magnetic field is
interpreted as ‘0’.
Data representation on optical media
In optical devices, the presence of light is interpreted as ‘1’
while its absence is interpreted as ‘0’.
 BITS – this is a binary digit, which can either be 0 or
1.it’s the basic unit of data or information in digital
computers.
 BYTE – a group of 8 bits. It is the basic unit of
measuring memory size in computers.
 NIBBLE – it is a half a byte or a group of 4 bits.
 WORD – its consists of one or more bytes and is the
largest amount of memory that the computer can handle.
 WORD LENGTH – is the number of bits in each
word of computer.
Reading data on a CD-ROM
Types of data representation
 Number System

 Base conversion

 Negative Numbers

 Binary Addition
Types of number systems
 Decimal Number System

 Binary Number System

 Octal Notion

 Hexadecimal Number System

Decimal Number System
 This number system has ten digits ranging from 0-
9. A decimal number should be written with a
subscript 10. e.g. 13210. Each digit of a given
number in the base has a place value, which is
influenced by base ten. E.g. number 123410
Binary Number System
 This number system uses two digits 1 and 0 to
represent numbers. The place value of the digits of a
base two number is influenced by two (the
base/radix). e.g. the place values of the 10102 are
illustrated below
Octal Notation
 The octal number system consists of eight digits
running from 0-7. each digit of a number in base
eight has its place value determined by eight.
E.g. 21638 can be expressed as.
 Hexadecimal Number System
 This number system consists of sixteen digits ranging from
0-9 and letters A-F where A is equivalent to 10, B to 11 up
to F which is equivalent to 15, in base ten systems. Each
digit of a number in base sixteen has its place value
expressed in terms of sixteen. For example, the value 12A3
can be expressed as;
Base conversion
 Decimal to Binary
 Binary to Decimal Number
 Decimal to Octal
 From Octal to Decimal
 Converting Octal to Binary
 From Decimal to Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal to Decimal
 Hexadecimal to Binary
 Decimal to Binary 1
 To convert a number from base 10 to base 2, the number in
base 10 is repeatedly divided by 2 unit the divided is zero
on each division the remainder is noted. The remainders are
copied bottom up wise to give the binary equivalent of the
decimal number.
Decimal to Binary 2
 For fractional numbers the
number is divided into two
parts. The whole number
part and the fraction part.
The whole number is
repeatedly divided by 2
while the fraction is
repetitively multiplied by 2
until the fraction becomes
zero or starts recurring.
(Repeating it self)
Binary to Decimal Number 1
 Steps
1. First write the place
values starting from
the right hand side.
2. Write each digit under
its place value.
3. Multiply each digit by
its corresponding
place value.
4. Sum up the products.
Binary to Decimal Number 2
 For fraction number,
the whole number is
converted to decimal as
above. The fraction
part digits are divided
by multiples of two
starting from the
decimal point.
Decimal to octal 1
 To convert a number
from base 10 to base 8,
the number in base 10
is repeatedly divided
by 8, until the dividend
is zero each division
the remainder is noted.
Decimal to octal 2
 To convert fractional
decimal to octal the
procedure is same as
for fractional decimal
to binary, but the
multiplication is by 8
instead of 2.
Form Octal to Decimal
 The procedure is same as
from binary to decimal, but
the weights as assigned in
terms of 8’s.

 The fractional number are

converted to decimal using
the same procedure as that
of converting fractional
binary to decimal, but
divisions is by multiplies of
eight.
Converting Octal to Binary
 Each digit is
represented by 3
binary digits. E.g. 7 is
represented as 1112
From Decimal to Hexadecimal 1
 The procedure is same
as from decimal to
binary though divisions
are by 16
From Decimal to Hexadecimal 2
 For the fractional numbers, the fraction part is
multiplied by 16.
Hexadecimal to Decimal
 The same procedure as
from Binary to Decimal
is used with the weights
assigned in terms of
16’s.

 For fractional
hexadecimal values. The
division is by 16 and the
procedure is the same as
the binary fraction to
decimal.
Hexadecimal to Binary
Examples of hexadecimal to binary
Negative numbers
 Both positive and negative numbers can be
represented in the computer memory
during processing. various methods are
used to represent negative numbers in the
computer. These methods are:
i. One’s compliment
ii. Two’s compliment
The negative numbers are used to carry out
subtraction in the computer arithmetic
operations.
One’s complement (1c method)
 In this method the binary bits representing the
negative number are negated that is the 1’s in the
number are changed to 0’s and 0’s to 1’s.
Two’s complement (2c method)
 In this method, the negative number is represented
into binary, then complimented as in 1c method
but a ‘1’ is added to the least significant digit of
the complement value.
Signed magnitude
 In decimal numbers, signed number has a prefix “+”
for a positive number e.g. +3210 and “-” for a
negative number e.g. -3210. in binary, a negative
number may be represented by prefixing a digit 1 to
the number while a positive number may be
represented by prefixing a digit 0.
i.e. 1710 ⇒ 100012 (unsigned)
-1710 ⇒ To indicate it’s a negative number we add
an extra bit (1) 100012
+1710 ⇒ To indicate it’s positive we add an extra bit
(0) 100012
Advantages of two’s compliment
 There are no two ways of representing a
zero as in one’s compliment and signed
magnitude.

 Effective addition and subtraction can be

done even with numbers that are
represented with a sign bit.
Binary arithmetics
 Binary addition

 Binary subtraction

 Binary multiplication
Binary addition
 Binary addition rules

A+B sum + carry

0+0 0 0
0+1 1 0
1+0 1 0
1+1 0 1
1+1+1 1 1
Binary subtraction
 Binary subtraction
rule

A-B difference borrow

0-0 0 0
0-1 1 1
1-0 1 1
1-1 0 0
Subtraction using ones complements
Subtraction using two’s compliment
Binary multiplication
Multiplication rule Product
A*B 0
0*0 0
0*1 0
1*1 1
Examples of binary multiplication
Symbolic representation using coding system

 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

 Extended BCD code / standard BCD code
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
 American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII)
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
 BCD is a 4 bit code used to represent numeric
data only. For example, a number like 3 can
be represented using binary coded decimal as
00112. BCD is mostly used in simple
electronics devices like calculators etc.
Extended BCD code / standard BCD code

 This standard binary coded decimal is an

enhanced format of binary coded decimal
(BDC) it’s a 7-bit representation scheme
which can represent non numeric characters.
This allows 64 characters to be represented.
For example letter A is represented as
1100012 using standard BCD code.
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)

 EBCDIC is an 8-bit character coding scheme

used primarily in IBM computers. A total of
256 (28) characters can be coded using this
scheme. For example letter A is represented
as 110000012 in EBCDIC code.
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)

 ASCII is a 7-bit code, which means that only

128 characters can be represented. There is
an 8th bit to this coding scheme which can
provide for 256 characters. The 8th bit coding
scheme is referred to as an 9-bit ASCII for
example letter A is represented as
10000012 in ASCII code
Review questions 1
1. Differentiate between analog and digital data.
2. Define the following terms:
a. Amplitude
b. Frequency
c. Periodic time
3. Explain the role of a modem in communication.
4. State the reasons for use of binary in digital technology.
5. Using illustration, explain how data is represented:
a. In electronic circuits
b. On magnetic media
c. On CD-ROM
6. Distinguish between:
a. A byte and a nibble
b. Word and word length
Answer of review questions 1-1
1. Analog data is a type of data that is continuous in nature
while digital data is in discrete form.
2. a). Amplitude is the maximum.
b) Frequency is the number of cycles per second.
c) Periodic time is the time taken by a signal to complete a
cycle.
3. A modem converts (modulates) data to be transmitted over
the telephone line from digital signal to analog form. At the
receiving end, the modem attached to the receiving computer
converts (demodulates) the analog signal to original digital
form.
4. Devices designed using binary logic are simple, more
reliable and consume less energy.
 Answer of review questions 1-2
5. a). In electronic circuits – availability of high voltage ‘on’ is
interpreted as a ‘1’ while low voltage ‘off’ is interpreted as
a ‘0’.
b)On magnetic media, arrangement of magnetic dipoles of iron
oxide in one direction is interpreted as ‘1s” while those that face
in the opposite direction are interpreted as ‘0s’.
c)On the shiny surface of the CD are pits and lands. When a laser
beam falls on the shinny surface, it is reflected and interpreted as a
‘1’. On the other hand, when the laser beam takes on the pit or
bump, there is no reflection and this is interpreted as a ‘0’ bit.
6. a). A byte is made up of seven or eight bits while a nibble is
made up of four bits i.e. it is half of a byte.
b). A word consists of two or more bytes while a word length is
used as a measure of the number of bits in each word.
Review questions 2
 Convert the following base two numbers
into denary (base 10) numbers.
a. 01012
b. 11112
c. 101011011102
d. 101111112
e. 10110112
f. 1110001112
Answer of review questions 2
a. d. 19110
510

b. 1510 e. 8910

c. 139010 f. 45510
Review questions 3
 Using the place value and log division
methods convert each of the following
base 10 numbers to their binary
equivalents.
a. 1010
b. 4310
c. 36510
d. 51210
e. 143
f. 95410
Answer of review questions 3
a. 10102 d. 10000000002

b. 1010112 e. 100011112

c. 1011011012 f. 11101110102
Review questions 4
1. Convert the 2. Convert the
following binary following decimal
numbers to their numbers into their
decimal equivalents. binary equivalents.
a. 0.100112 a. 0.63510
b. 0.00102 b. 0.45010
c. 0.101012 c. 2.50010
d. 11.01102 d. 5.162510
e. 101.111102 e. 7.187510
f. 100.1102 f. 0.35010
Answer of review questions 4
1. Convert the binary 2. Convert the decimal
numbers to their numbers into their
decimal equivalents. binary equivalents.

a. 0.5937510 a. 0.1012
b. 0.12510 b. 0.011102
c. 0.6562510 c. 10.10002
d. 3.37510 d. 101.001010011
e. 5.937510 e. 111.00112
f. 4.7510 f. 110101.01011102
Review questions 5
 Convert the following octal numbers to decimal
numbers.
a. 778
b. 648
c. 1028
d. 12008
e. 10008
f. 1738
g. 1238
h. 7778
i. 3458
j.
k.
1668
3458
Answer of review questions 5
a. 6310 f. 12310

b. 5210 g. 8310

c. 6610 h. 51110

d. 64010 i. 22910

e. 51210 j. 11810
Review questions 6
 Convert the following octal numbers to their
binary equivalents.
a. 2448
b. 2478
c. 1628
d. 5658
e. 2228
f. 33708
g. 14138
h. 13318
i. 63478
j. 466538
Answer of review questions 6
a. 101001002 f. 110111110002

b. 101001112 g. 110000110112

c. 11100102 h. 10110110012

d. 1011101012 i. 1100111001112

e. 100100102 j. 1001101101010112
Review questions 7
 Convert the following hexadecimal numbers
into decimal numbers.
a. 3216
b. CCD16
c. EFE16
d. 11916
e. 32816
f. ABD16
g. 10AFFD16
h. DDFF3416
i. 11ABDF16
j. CDFF3116
Answer of review questions 7
a. 5010 f. 95410

b. 327710 g. 109362910

c. 383810 h. 1454878810

d. 28110 i. 115811110

e. 80810 j. 1350020910
Review questions 8
 Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into binary
form
a. 29416
b. 24716
c. EFD16
d. 90716
e. BAD16
f. CBDF16
g. 585C16
h. ABCD16
i. 55C3A16
j. 33111CF16
k. Convert 1111000110111 to its hexadecimal equivalent.
Answer of review questions 8
a. 10100101002 g. 1011000010111002
b. 10010001112 h. 10101011110011012
c. 11101111111012 i. 1010101110000111
d. 1001000001112 0102
e. 1011101011012 j. 1100110001000100
01110011112
f. 11001011110111112
k. IE3716
Review questions 9
Answer of review questions 9
1. 100012 7.
10001112
2. 101102 8.
1111112
3. 110012 9.
10000002
4. 1100112 10.
110010112
5. 10110012 11.
10010112
6. 101012 12.
Review questions 10
Answer of review questions 10
1. 11112 1.
111112
2. 0012 2. 102
3. 101002 3.
10100102
4. 10012 4.
110001102
5. 1101012 5.
100012
Review questions 11
1. Convert the decimal number -7 to 8-bit binary using
ones and twos complement.
2. Using 8-bits length, find the twos complement of the
following decimal numbers.
A) -3110
B) -2810
C) -510
3. Using ones and twos complement perform the following
arithmetic operations.
A) 1410 – 710
B) 2810 – 1210
C) 3410 – 3310
D) 10010 – 5010
E) 10210 – 6410
Answer the review questions 11
1. 111110012 3. A). 1112

2. A). 111000012 B). 100002

B). 111001002 C). 12

C). 111110112 D). 1100102

E). 01001122
 Revision questions 1
1. Explain the two types of 4. Convert the following
data signals. decimal numbers to their
2. Differentiate between decimal binary
A) Octal and decimal
equivalents.
number systems. A) 78910
B) 57010
B) Binary and hexadecimal
number systems. C) 4210
D) 3010
3. Convert the following binary
numbers to their decimal 5. Find the sum of the
equivalents. following binary numbers.
A) 1110 2 + 1111 2 =
1. 101110
2 B) 0012 + 1002 =
2. 1010112 C) 11012 + 10112 + 1002 =
3. 01102 D) 10102 + 1012 =
4. 101012 E) 1112 + 112 =
Answer of revision questions 1
1. Analog and digital
2. A). Octal number system is a base 8 system while the
decimal number system is a base 10 system.
B). Binary number system is a base 2 system while
hexadecimal number system is a base 16 system.
3. A).
4610
B). 4310
C). 610
D). 2210
4. A).
11000101012
B). 10001110102
Revision questions 2
1. Work out the following binary 3. Determine the value of X in the
subtraction using direct, ones equations:
and twos complement methods. A) 1001102 – X2 = 0010102
A) 11001 – 1101 B) X2 + 11012 = 7010
B) 1000 – 101 4. Work out the decimal equivalents
C) 100011 – 111 of the following binary numbers.
D) 10101110 – 1000110 A) 0.100102
E) 10001000110 – 101 B) 101.112
2. Find the ones and twos C) 11.1012
complement of the following
decimal number in binary form. D) 0.0012
A) -7510 5. Work out the decimal equivalents
B) -8010 of the following binary numbers.
C) -10010 A) 0.3510
B) 2.5010
C) 0.2010
Answer of revision questions 2
1. A). 101012 1. A). 0.562510
B). 1012 B). 5.7510
C). 111002 C). 3.62510
D). 11112 D). 0.12510
E). 10102 2. A). 0.0101102
B). 10.12
2. A). 11002
C). 0.00112
B). 0112
D). 111.0012
C). 111002
D). 11010002
E). 100010000012
3. A). 111002
Revision questions 3
1. Write down the character represented by the following
codes:
A) ASCII
i. 0110000
ii. 0110111
iii. 1000011
iv. 1011001
B) EBCDIC
1. 11110000
2. 11110111
3. 11000001
4. 01011101
 Answer of revision questions 3
ASCII Char EBCDIC Char
acter
Num 1’s 2s
acter
ber complement complement

A). 0110000 0 11110000 0

A) -75 0110100 0110101

B). 0110111 7 11110111 7

B) -80 0101111 0110000
C). 1000011 C 11000001 A

C) -100 0011011 0011100

D). 1011001 Y 01011101 )
 Chapter
data
2 processing

77
 Definition of Terms
 Data – this is a collection of raw facts (figures, letters,
characters etc) that convey little meaning by themselves.
 Information – this refers to data that has undergone
processing and is meaningful to the user when he/she need
it, in the form he needs and at the time he/she need it.
 Data processing – refers to the process of
transforming raw facts into meaningful output
(information)
 Data processing cycle – refers to input process output
stages that data goes through to be transformed into
information.
 Data processing cycle

Data collection

Output Data input

Processing
 Stages of data processing cycle
1. Data collection – this involves looking for or getting
the data from its point of origin for processing purpose.
2. Data input – this is the process where the collected data
is converted from human readable form to machine –
readable form.
3. Processing – this is transformation of input data by the
central processing unit to a more meaningful output.
4. Output – this is the final activity of data processing
cycle which produces the desired output (information).
The information is then distributed to the target
groups.
Methods of data collection
 Interview

 Questionnaire

 Observation

 Record inspection
Stages of data collection
 Depending on the method of data collection
used, the process of data collection may
involve the following stages.
 Data creation
 Data transmission
 Data preparation
 Media conversion
 Input validation
 Sorting
Data creation
 This is the process of putting together facts
in an organised format. This may be in form
of manually prepared documents or captured
from the source using data capture devices.
E.g. scanners, digital camera etc.
Data transmission
 This refers to the transfer of data from the
point of collection (source) of the point where
processing is to be done. Transmission can be
electronically through computer – to –
computer, physically by the post office etc.
Data preparation
 This refers to conversion of data from
source document to machine – readable
form. Data collected using devices that
capture data in digital form do not require
transcription conversion.
Media conversion
 Data may need to be converted from one
medium to another. E.g. from a compact
disk to hard disk for faster input.
Input validation
 Data entered into the computer is
subjected to validity and verification
checks before processing.

 Verification – this involves checking that what is

on input document is exactly the same as what is
entered into the computer.
 Validation – this is identification and removal of
errors by the computer through the control of the
program.
Sorting
 The source documents are arranged in a
particular order for easy and faster entry.
Description of errors in data processing

 The accuracy of the data entered in the

computer determines the accuracy of the
information given out.
Types of data processing errors
 Transcription errors – these errors occurs during data
entry. These errors includes misreading errors and
transposition errors.
 Computational errors – they occur when an
arithmetic operation does not produce the expected
results. They include overflow errors, truncation
errors and rounding errors.
 Algorithm or logical errors – these errors occurs as
a result of wrong algorithm design.
Misreading errors
 They are brought about by incorrect
reading of source document by the user
and hence entering wrong values. This
may be caused by bad hand writing or
confusion on source document. E.g. the
number ‘5’ can be typed as s or letter 0
typed as Zero.
Transposition errors
 These errors occurs as a result of incorrect
arrangement of characters. i.e. putting
characters in the wrong order. E.g. the user
may enter 542 instead of 542. transcription
errors can be eliminated by use of data
capture devices.
Overflow errors
 This errors occurs if the result from a
calculation is too large to be stored in the
allocated memory space. E.g. if the memory
space can accommodate an 8-bit number and
the results from arithmetic is 9-bit number.
Truncation errors
 This result from having real numbers that
have a long fractional part which cannot fit in
the allocated memory space. The computer
cut off the extra characters from the fraction
part. E.g. a number like 0.854692 can be
truncated to four digits as 0.854.
Rounding errors
 This results from a raising or lowering a
digit in a real number to the required
rounded number. E.g. a number 3.59 can be
rounded to 3.6.
Data integrity
 Data integrity refers to the accuracy and
completeness of data entered in a computer
or received from the information system.
Factors that determine data integrity

 Accuracy

 Timeliness

 Relevance

 Audibility
Accuracy
 This refers to whether information/data is
accurate – true or untrue. As long as the
correct instructions and data are entered,
computers produce accurate results
efficiently.
Timeliness
 This refers to whether the information is
available when it is needed, and if its outdated
when it is received or when it is used. If
information is not available when needed or
its outdated by the time its used then has little
or no value in decision making.
Relevance
 The data entered must be pertinent to the
proce3ssing needs at hand and must meet the
requirements of the processing cycle.
Audibilit
y
 Audit ability also refers to as verifiability.
This is the ability of users to check the
accuracy and completeness of information.
 Threats to data integrity
 Threats to data integrity can be minimised
through the following;
 Using error detection and correction software when
transmitting data.
 Design user interfaces that minimizes chances of
invalid data entry.
 Using devices that capture data directly from source
e.g. scanners etc.
 Control access to data by enforcing security
measures.
 Back up data preferably on external storage
Data processing methods
 Data can be processed using one of the
following methods.

 Mechanically
 Manually
 Electronically
Manual data processing
 In this method staff in an
organisation uses the laid
down procedures and rules to
collect data, process and
distribute information to
relevant departments for use.
The tasks are done manually
with a pen and a paper. No
machines are used to process
data instead they use simple
tools like tables and rulers.
Mechanical data processing
 Mechanical systems
are those where staff
use various mechanical
machines like
calculators,
typewriters, cash
registers duplicating
machines etc to
perform operations.
Electronic data processing
 In this system, data is
manipulated using electronic
machines to produce
information. This method is
faster and more accurate than
the manual and mechanical
where large volumes of data are
to be processed. This method
involves the use of computers
and other electronic machine
like mobile phones, washing
machines, modern digital TVs
etc.
Factors determining the methods of data processing

 Size and type of business

 Timing aspects

 Link between application

Computer files
 A file is a collection of related records that
give a complete set of information about a
certain item or entity. A file can be stored
manually in a file cabinet or electronically in
a computer storage device.
Advantages of computerized filling system

 Information takes up less space than the

manual system.
 Enhance data integrity and reduces
duplication.
 Offers faster access and retrieval of
data.
 It’s much easier to update or modify
information.
Elements of a computer file
 A computer file is made up 3 elements.
 Characters – this is the smallest element in a computer file
and refer to a letter, number, symbol that can be entered,
stored and output by a computer.
 Field – a field is a single character or a collection of
characters that represents a single piece of data. For
example in employees record, the name of employee is a
field.
 Records – is a collection of related fields that represents a
single entity. For example in employees record, details of
each employee in a row. E.g. Name, IDNO, sex,
Department etc make up a record. Computer files can be
viewed in two ways.
Logical file
 This is the way the user views the file in
terms of its contents and the processing to be
carried upon them.
Physical file
 This is the actual arrangement of the file
contents into the storage media surface and
how the processing operations are made
possible.
Types of computer processing files

 Master file
 Transaction file (movement file)
 Reference file
 Sort file
 Back – up file
 Report file
Master file
 This is the main file that contains permanent
records about a particular item or entries. The
master file contains both static and dynamic
fields. For example a payroll system might
keep a master file containing employees
personal details (name, address, date of birth,
sex etc) which rarely change (static fields) and
data describing the earnings and deductions
which frequently change (dynamic fields).
Transaction file (movement file)
 This file includes input and output files for
holding temporary incoming or outgoing
data. It contains data about an organisation
activities taking place for some period of
time. This file is used to update dynamic
data on master files.
Reference file
 They are permanent or semi permanent
and are used for reference or look up
purposes. They contain records that are
fairly static. E.g. price, lists, Pay As You
Earn etc.
Sort file
 These files are created from existing
transaction or master files. They are used
where data is to be processed sequentially.
Data or records are first sorted in a particular
format for example they are arranged in
ascending or descending order of the key
field and stored in the sort file.
Back – up file
 These files are duplicate copies of existing
files. They are used to supplement the
operational files in case of loss by any reason.
They are created any time and update is
carried out on the master file.
Report file
 They contain sets of records extracted from
data in the master files. They are used to
prepare reports that can be printed at a later
date, for example, list of absentees, overtime
etc.
File processing activities 1
 Updating – refers to changing data in
master file to reflect the current status.
 Referencing – happens when it is made to
particular records to ascertain what is
contained therein. The activity does not alter
the contents of master file from a file.
 Sorting – this entails arranging of file
contents into some pre – determined
sequence of the key field, which occupy
the same position on the records.
File processing activities 2
 Merging – the process that combines the
contents of two or more input files into one
output files.
 Matching – the input files records are
matched/compared to ensure that records exist in
both the files.
 Summarizing – the records of interest from the file
are accumulated to form a record in the output
file.
 Searching – it entails looking for the record of
interests from the file.
File updating 1
 Hit rate – hit rate is used to describe the rate
of processing of a master file in terms of its
active records. For example, if 600
transactions are processed each day against a
master file of 12,000 records, then the hit rate
is said to be 5% i.e. 600/12000*100
File updating 2
 Volatility – this is the frequency with which
records are added to the file or deleted from
it. If the frequency is high, then the file is
said to be ‘volatile’ otherwise ‘static’.
 Size – refers to the amount of data stored in
the file. Its expressed in terms of the total
number of records in the file.
 Growth – files will always grow as new
records are added to it.
File organisation methods
 File organisation is the arrangements of
records within a particular file. There are four
methods of storing files and retrieving them
from secondary storage devices.
Sequential file organisation
 In this organisation records are stored and
accessed in a particular order sorted using key
field. The key field is used to search for a
particular record. Searching commences at the
beginning of the file and proceeds to the ‘tail’
of the file until the record is reached. Mainly
used with magnetic tapes.
Advantages of sequential file
 Simple to understand the approach.
 Easy to organise, maintain and
understand.
 Reading a record requires only the key
field.
 Inexpensive input/output media and
devices are used.
Disadvantages of sequential file
 Entire file must be accessed even when the
activity rate is very low.

 Random enquires are impossible to

handle.

 Data redundancy is typically high.

Random or direct file organisation

 In this organisation records are stored

randomly but accessed directly. To access a
file stored randomly, a record key is used to
determine where a record is stored on the
storage media. Used in magnetic and optical
disks.
Advantages of random or direct file

 Records are quickly accessed.

 File update is easily achieved.

 They do not require the use of indexes.

Disadvantages of random or direct file

 Data may be accidentally erased or over

written. Unless special precaution taken.
 Expensive hardware and software
resources are required.
 Relative complexity of
programming.
 System design around it is complex and
costly.
Serial file organisation
 The records are laid out
contiguously one after the
other in no particular
sequence. The records are
stored one after the other in
the same order they come
into the file and there exists
no relationship between
contiguous records. Used
with magnetic tapes.
Indexed sequential file organisation

 This method is similar to sequential

method, only that an index is used to enable
the computer to locate individual records
on the storage media. Used with magnetic
disk.
Advantages of indexed sequential file

 Records can be accessed sequentially or

randomly.

 Records are not duplicated.

 Accessing of records can be fast if done

randomly.
Disadvantages indexed sequential file

 Storage medium is rather expensive.

 Accessing records sequentially is time

consuming.

 Processing records sequentially may

introduce redundancy.
Electronic data processing modes

 On-line processing
 Time sharing processing
 Real time processing
 Multi-programming / multi-tasking
 Distributed processing
 Batch processing
 Multi-processing
 Interactive processing
On-line processing
 In this processing the result of data
processing is available immediately. All the
computer peripherals and equipments are
under the direct control of the central
processor. As soon as the input transactions
are available, they are processed to produce
the required information. The user can
interact with the system at any time of
processing using input/output facilities.
Application of on-line processing

 Banking

 Stock exchange

 Stock control

 Water/electricity billing
Advantages of on-line processing

 Files are maintained up to date.

 Information is readily available for current

decisions.

 File enquiries possible through the

terminals (work station)
Disadvantages of on-line processing

 System are complex to develop.

 Are costly in terms of hardware, software,

storage media etc.
 Time sharing processing
 In this mode the central processor serves two or more users with
different processing requirements (tasks). The central computer is
available to a variety of uses, connected to the central computer via
communication links who may wish to process their data and receive
information. The processor time is divided out appropriately among
the user task is into time slices. Control is switched from one job to
another, under the influence of the operating system. The time slice
is equal for all jobs and it’s assigned to jobs waiting in a queue. In
one turn, only one slice is allocated to the job. The jobs in the queue
are assigned the time slice from the head of the queue towards the
tail. Jobs that require more time slices are chained to the tail queue.
New jobs into the queue are added at the tail of the queue. The
wholly processed jobs output results. The incomplete jobs go back to
the tail of the queue to await their next turn.
Application of time sharing processing

 Bureau

 Learning institutions.

 Companies.
Advantages of time sharing processing

 Better services to the users, for the

information/output is fast.
 Files enquiries is possible since files are
held on-line.
 User interaction is possible through
terminals.
Disadvantages of time sharing processing

 User has no control over the central

computer.

 Not reliable with regard to data

security.

 Response time is slow where there are

many tasks.
Real time processing
 In this mode, computer processes the
incoming data as soon as it occurs, updates
the transactions file and gives an immediate
response that would affect the events as they
happen. The main purpose of a real time
processing is to provide accurate, up to date
information hence better services based on a
real situation.
Application of real time processing

 Air reservation

 Hotel reservation

 Chemical plant processing

Advantages of real time processing

 Information is readily available for instant

decision.

 Provides immediate control / information.

 Its fast and reliable.

Disadvantages of real time processing

 Requires complex and expensive

operating system.

 They are not easy to develop.

 Require Front End Processors (FEPS) to

relieve the ventral processor.
Multi-programming / multi-tasking

 In this processing more than one program are

executed apparently at the same time by a
single central processing unit. The operating
system allocated each program a time slice
and decides what order they will be
executed.
Advantages of multi-programming / multi-tasking

 Increases the productivity of the computer by

reducing CPU idle time.

 Reduces the incidence of peripheral

bound operations.
Disadvantages of multi-programming / multi-tasking

 Requires more expensive CPUs.

 Operating system is complex and more

difficult to operate.
Distributed processing
 This processing refers to dividing
(distributing) processing tasks to two or more
computers that are located on physically
separate sites but connected by data
transmission media. For example, a
distributed database will have different tables
of the same database residing on separate
computers and processed there as need arises.
Application of distributed processing

 Banks where customers can be served from

different branches but information is
updated at the head branch.
Advantages of distributed processing

 Less risk to system breakdown.

 In case of data loss, only a small portion of

the data is lost.

 Reduction of the load on the host.

computer hence faster processing.
Disadvantages of distributed processing

 Expensive due to extra communication

costs.

 More sophisticated software required to

maintain data integrity.
Batch processing
 This is processing mode where the
transactions are accumulated over a period
of time and then proce3ssed at a pre-
specified time to produce a batch of
output. The data to be processed e.g. daily,
weekly, monthly etc then processed at once.
Application of batch processing
 Payroll processing.
Advantages of batch processing
 Simple to develop.

 Timing reports is not a necessity.

 The unit cost of processing is low.

Disadvantages of batch processing

 Time lag between origination of the

transactions and the information
availability.
 Late information is not suitable in
situations where instant decisions are
requires.
 Its difficult to provide the desired priority
scheduling.
Multi-processing
 This refers to the processing of more one task
at the same time on different processors of
the same computer. In such systems, a
computer may contain more than one
independent central processing unit which
works together in a coordinated way. At a
given time the processor may execute
instructions from two or more different
programs or from different parts of one
program simultaneously.
Interactive processing
 In this processing, there is continuous
dialogue between the user and the
computers. As the program executes, it
keeps on prompting the user to provide
input or respond to prompts displayed on
the screen.
Factor to consider in selecting the data processing mode

 The need for direct information retrieval

and/or file interrogation.
 The control over the resources e.g. files,
input/output devices.
 The cost of acquiring the relevant
hardware, software, media etc.
 The optimization of the processing
time.
 The time factor of the information for
decision making by mangers.
 Review questions 1
1. Define the following terms:
A) Data processing.
B) Data processing style.
2. Using an illustration, describe the four primary stages of the data
processing cycle.
3. Outline the stages of data collection.
4. You may have come across the term Garbage In Garbage Out
(GIGO). What is its relevance to errors in data processing.
5. Explain the two types of transcription errors.
6. State three types of computational errors.
7. Define the term data integrity.
8. Give three factors that determine the integrity of data.
9. State at least five ways of minimising threats to data integrity.
Answer of review questions 1-1
1. A). Data processing refers to the transformation of raw
data into meaningful output (information).
B). Data processing cycle are the stages that data goes
through during its transformation into information. The
output may be used later as input to another processing task.
2. Data collection → data input → data processing →
output.
3. A). Data creation.
B). Data transmission.
C). Data preparation.
D). Media conversion.
E). Input validation.
F). Sorting.
Answer of review questions 1-2
4. The accuracy of data entry determines the accuracy of the
output.
5. A). Wrong entry due to misreading the source data e.g.
entering C instead of G (transcription error).
B). Transposition – interchanging values e.g. 396
instead of 369.
6. Overflow and underflow.
Truncation.
Rounding.
7. A). Data
integrity
refers to
accuracy
and
 Revision questions
1. Distinguish between data and information.
2. Describe types of data processing methods.
3. State at least four advantages of storing data in
computer files over the manual filing system.
4. State elements that make up a computer file.
5. Differentiate between a logical file and physical
file.
6. Explain at least six types of computer files.
7. Distinguish between
A) Sequential and serial file organisation methods.
B) Random and indexed-sequential file organisation
methods.
Answer of revision questions 1
1. Data refers to raw facts that do 5. A logical file is viewed in terms
not have much meaning while of what data items and
information refers to the processing operation may be
meaningful output after performed on the data while a
processing. physical file is viewed in terms
2. Data processing methods: how data is stored and how it is
manual, mechanical and to be processed.
electronic. 6. A). Master file.
3. A). Takes up less space. B) Transaction file.
B). Easier to update or modify. C) Reference file. D).
C). Faster access and retrieval. Backup file.
D). Enhances integrity. E) Report file.
4. A). Characters. F) Sort file.
B). Field.
C). Record.
 Answer of revision questions 2
1. In sequential file organisation, records are stored in a sorted order using a
key field while in serial file organisation, records are not sorted in any way.
2. In random file organisation, records are stored randomly but accessed
directly. On the other hand, in indexed-sequential, records are stored
sequentially but accessed directly using an index.
3. On-line distributed – the data being processed is accessed, processed and
updated in real time.
4. Time-sharing-competing computers are allocated time slots to use
computer resources.
5. Batch processing – all the available jobs are processed in bulk all at
6. once.
Interactive processing – the computer presents the user with input
7. screens / the user inputs data as processing continues.
Real time – data being processed is updated online and the results
8. thereof affect current processing logic.
Multi-tasking – several computer programs / tasks run concurrently at the same
9. time sharing resources in shifts.
Multiprocessing – several programs / tasks run concurrently on different
processors.
 Chapter
Elementary programming
3
principles

168
Introduction
 Human beings have evolved from
the stone age to a highly
sophisticated and advanced
society by inventing things like
the wheel, fire, transistors and
today’s ultra modern devices like
computers. The idea of computers
started way back in the nineteenth
century. The first generation
computers called Electronic
Numeric Integrator And
Calculator (ENIAC 1) were
operated by plugging wires into a
control panel that resembles the
old telephone switchboards.
Computer programming
 A program – is an organised list of statements
(instructions) that when executed, causes the
computer to behave in a predetermined manner or
carry out a defined task.
 Programming – refers to the process of
developing computer (instructions) programs
used to solve a particular task.
 A computer program – is designed using a
particular programming language. Each language
has a special sequence or order of writing
characters usually referred to as syntax.
Terms used in programming
 Source program
 Object code
 Translator
 Assembler
 Interpreter
 Compiler
Source program
 This refers to the program code that the
programmer enters in the program editor
window that is not yet translated into
machine-readable form.
Object code
 This refers to the program code that is in
machine-readable. i.e. a source code that has
been translated into machine language.
Translator
 These are programs that translates/convert the
source program into object code. E.g.
assemblers, compliers, interpreters etc.
Assembler
 An assembler translates a program written in
assembly language into machine language,
Interpreter
 This translates the source program line- by-
line, allowing the CPU to execute one line
before translating the next. The translated
line is not stored in the computer memory,
hence every time the program is executed,
it has to be translated.
Complier
 This translates the entire source program
into object code. The compiler translates
each high-level instruction into several
machine code instructions in a process
called COMPILATION and produces a
complete independent program that can be
run by the computer as often as required
without the original source program being
present.
Difference between the interpreters and compilers

Interpreters Compilers
Translates the source program Translates the entire source code
one statement at a time. at once before execution.
Translates the program each time Compiled program (object
it is run hence slower than code) can be saved on a
compiling. storage media and run as
required, hence executes
faster than interpreted
programs.
Interpreted object code takes Compiled programs require more
less memory compared to memory as the object file are
compiled program. larger.
Level of programming languages

 There are 2 major levels namely;

 Low-level languages.

 High-level languages.
Low-level languages
 These languages are classified as low because
they can be easily understood by the
computer directly or they require little effort
to translate into computer understandable
form. These languages are hardware oriented
and therefore they are not portable. i.e. a
program written for one computer cannot be
installed and used on another.
High-level languages
 These languages are very close to the
human language (English-like) and they can
be read and understood even by people who
are not experts in programming. These
languages are machine independent. This
means that a programmer concentrates on
problem solving during a programming
session rather than how a machine operates.
Types of low level languages
 Machine language (First generation
languages).

 Assembly languages (Second generation

languages)
 Machine language
(First generation languages)
 In this language, instructions are written using binary
logic. Given that data and instructions are in binary form,
many lines of codes are needed to accomplish even a
simple task like adding two numbers i.e. a program
written in this language look like this.
11100110 00000011 19999991
00001111 10001101
10001111 11111111 10000011
The program code is hard for human to understand but
it’s easily understood by computers.
 Assembly languages
(Second generation languages)
 This language is close to the machines vocabulary rather
than human beings vocabulary. It was developed in order
to overcome the difficulties of understanding and using
machine language. This language helps the programmers to
write programs as a set of symbolic operation codes called
Mnemonics. Mnemonics are basically shortened two or
three letter words. A sample program written in Assembly
language.

MOV AX, 15 (move 15 to register Ax)

SUB AX, 10
Programs written in this(Subtract
language10 from the
require an value Ax)
assembler
to convert them into machine language.
Classes of high level languages
 Third generation languages (3GLS)
 Forth generation languages (5GLs)
 Fifth generation languages (5GL’s)
 Object Oriented Programming Language
(OOP)
 Web scripting languages
Third generation languages (3GLS)

 This generation languages is also called

structured or procedural languages. A
procedural language makes it possible to
break a program into components called
modules. Each performing a particular task.
Structured programming has advantages
because its flexible, easier to read and
modify.
Examples of third generation programming language

 Pascal – was developed to help in the teaching and learning of

structured programming.
 Fotran – was developed for mathematics, scientists of
programs with mathematical expressions.
 Cobol – was designed for developing programs that solve
business problems.
 Basic – developed to enable students to easily learn
programming.
 C – used for developing system software e.g. the operation systems.
Its very powerful high level language because of its ability to
provide programmer with powerful aspects/features of low level.
 Ada – this language is suitable for developing military, industrial and
real – time systems.
Forth generation languages (4GLs)
 This generation make programming an even easier
task than the third generation language because they
present the programmer with more programming
tools. Examples of such tools are command buttons,
forms etc. the 4 GLs are easy to learn and understand
because they are user based. The languages syntax
(grammar) is natural, near English language and use
menus to prompts to guide a non-specialist or
retrieve data with ease.
Examples of 4GLs
 Visual Basic

 Delphi Pascal

 Visual Cobol

 C++
Fifth generation languages (5GL’s)

 These languages are designed around the

concept of solving problems by enabling the
computer to depict human like intelligence.
These programs are designed to make the
computer solve the problem for the
programmer rather than programmer spending
a lot of time to come up with the solution.
Examples of 5GL’s
 PROLOG

 MERCURY

 LISP

 OCCAM
Object Oriented Programming Language (OOP)

 The concept behind OOP languages is to look at a

program as having various objects interacting to
make up a whole. Each object has a specific data
values that are unique to it (called state) and a set of
the things it can accomplish called (functions or
behaviour). This process of having data and
functions that operate on the data within an object is
called Encapsulation. Several objects can then be
linked together to form a complete program. OOP
has greatly contributed to development of
Graphical user interface operation system
and application programs.
Examples of OOP
 Java

 Simula

 Small talk
 Web scripting languages
 These languages are used to develop or add functionalities on web
pages. Web pages are hypertext documents created in a language
called HyperText Markup Language (HTML). The languages
consist of markup tags that tell the Internet browser that the file
contains HTML-code information and is distinguished by a file
extension of HTML. The markup tags define the various components
of a World Wide Web document such as heading, tables, paragraphs,
lists etc. HTML does not have the declaration part and control
structures, hence it’s not considered as a true programming language.
Due to its simplicity, it has many limitations and cannot be used
alone when developing functional websites. Some special blocks of
codes called Scripts may be inserted in HTML pages using
scripting languages like JavaScript, VBScript etc in order to add
functionality to HTML pages.
Examples of HTML tags and their meanings

Tag Meaning
<HTML> Marks the beginning and end of a HTML document. All other tags and text fall
</HTML> between these two tags.

<HEAD></HEAD> Marks the header part of the document.

<TITLE> Gives title of te web page. Text between this tags appears in the title bar when the page is
</TITLE> browsed.

<BODY></BODY> Marks the body part of the document.

<CENTER></CENTER Centres text and objects on the web page.

>
<B></B> Bolds the text on the web page.

<I></I> Italicise the text.

<H1> Sets size of text on the web page with H6 displaying the smallest and H1 the
</H1> largest size.
Creating a script using Javascript 1

 Javascript is a popular scripting language.

Before writing your HTML program with a
script inserted, make sure that you have the
latest browser software installed on your
computer. Older browsers may not have
support for Javascript. If you are using
Internet Explorer, it should be version 5.0
and above.
Creating a script using Javascript 2
 Open Notepad and key in the following program. Do not
write the numbers to the left of each line of code.
1. <HTML>
2. <HEAD>
3. <TITLE>Scripting Example</TITLE>
4. </HEAD>
5. <BODY>
6. <HI><CENTER><B>we are the world</B></CENTER><HI>
7. <SCRIPT>LANGUAGE=‘JavaScript’>
8. document.write(‘My name is strongman’);
9. alert(‘congratulations for succeeding to run this script’);
10. </SCRIPT>
11. </BODY></HTML>
Creating a script using Javascript 3
 After typing the entire
program, save your file on
the desktop as
Example.html and then
close the notepad. Notice
that the icon to your file on
the desktop look like that
of the default web
browser in your computer.

 To view the web page,

double click the icon of the
file Example.html on the
desktop. Figure right
shows as open webpage.
Explanations of JavaScript
Advantages of low-level languages

 The CPU understands machine language

directly without translation.
 They are stable and hardly crash or
breakdown once written.
 Running a program is fast, no compilation is
needed.
 They are economical in terms of the
amount of memory they use.
Disadvantages of low-level languages

 They are difficult and cumbersome to use

and learn.
 Require highly trained experts to both
develop and maintain programs.
 Debugging programs is difficult.
 They are machine dependent.
 The programs are long.
Advantages of high-level languages

 The programs are portable (not machine

dependent).
 They are user friendly and easy to use and
learn.
 They are more flexible.
 They are easy to debug.
 They provide better documentation.
 Require less time to code.
Disadvantages of high-level languages

 Program executed more slowly.

 Require larger CPU storage capacity for

compilation.

 They have to be translated to machine

readable form before
Program development
 There are six stages of program
development. They include:
Problem recognition Documentation

Problem definition

Program design

Program coding

Program testing

Program implemetation
Problem recognition
 This refers to the understanding and
interpretation of a particular problem. To
understand a problem one has to look for key
words such as compute, evaluate, compare
etc. a programmer identifies problems in the
environment and seeks to solve them by
writing a computer program that would
provide the solution.
Circumstances that can cause the
programmer to identify a problem
 Opportunity to improve the current
program.

 A new directive given by the management

requiring a change in the status quo.

 Problems or undesirable situations that

prevent an individual or organisation from
achieving their purpose.
 Problem definition
 At this stage the programmer tries to determine or
define the likely input, processing and expected
output using the keywords outlined at the problem
recognition stage. The boundaries of the expected
program are established and if several methods to
solve the same problem are identified the best
alternatives should be chosen. At the end of the
stage requirement documentation for the new
program is written.
 Program design
 This is the actual development of the program’s processing or
problem solving logic called algorithm. (A limited number of
logical steps that a program follows in order to solve a problem).
The programmer comes up with an algorithm after analysing the
requirements specifications. Some of the programs are made up of
one large block code. i.e. they are Monolithic while others are made
of several units called modules which work
together to from the whole program. In modular programming, each
module performs a specific task. This approach makes a program
flexible, easier to read and debug. This phase enable the
programmer to come up with models of the expected
program. The model show the flow of events and data
throughout the entire program from input of a program.
Monolithic and modular program
Program coding
 This is the actual process of converting a
design model into its equivalent program.
This is done by creating the program using a
particular programming language. The end
result of this stage is a source program that
can be translated into machine readable form
for the computer to execute and solve the
target problem.
Program in Pascal and C++
Program in Pascal Program in C++
Program AreaCircle (input, output); #include<iostream.h>
Const Pi = 22/7; double radius, area;
Var double pi = 22/7;
Radius, Area: real; main ()
Begin {
WriteIn (‘Enter the cout<<‘Enter the
radius’); radius’;
ReadIn (radius); cin>>radius;
Area: = Pi *Radius *Radius; area = pi *radius *radius
WriteIn (‘The area is’, Area) cout<<‘The area is’, area;
End. return 0;
}
Explain the program codes 1
Pascal code C++ code Explanation
Program Areacircle #include<iostream.h> The header of the programs.
(input, output); The statements in () and <>
shows that the user inputs
data via the keyboard and
the program display
information on the screen.

Const Pi = 3.142; double pi = 3.142; A constant has been

declared with a name pi
and value 3.142.
Var double area, radius; Real variables with
Radius, area:real fractional part have been
declared.
Explain the program codes 2
Pascal code C++ code Explanation
Begin { Marks the beginning of
the program body or
executable statements.

WtiteIn cout<<’Enter radius’: Display on the screen the

string between inverted
commas.

ReadIn (Radius) cin>>radius; Displays a blinking

cursor that tells the user
that an input is needed
before the program can
continue.
Explain the program codes 3
Pascal code C++ code Explanation
Area: = Pi * Radius area = pi * radius Calculates the area. Notice the
* Radius * radius; assignment statement in Pascal
is : = while in C++ it is
=
WriteIn (‘The area cout<<”The area Display the value stored in
is’, Area); is’, Area<<”∖n”; the variable Area.

End. return 0; Marks the end of the program

}
Program Testing and Debugging

 After coding the program has to be tested

and the errors detected and corrected.
Debugging refers to detection and correction
of errors that may exist in the program.
Program testing involves creating test data
designed to produce predictable output. They
are two types of errors (bugs) that can be
encountered when testing.
Types of errors (bugs)
 Syntax errors – they occur as a result of
improper use of language rules. E.g.
grammar mistakes, punctuation, improper
naming of variables etc. these errors are
detectable by translator and must be
corrected before the program runs.

 Logical errors – they are not detectable by the

translator. The program rules but gives wrong
out put or halts during execution.
Methods of errors detection
 Desk checking / dry – run.
 Using Debugging utilities.
 Using Test Data.
 Implementation and maintenance
Implementation.
 Review and maintenance.
 Program documentation.
Desk checking / dry – run
 It involves going through the program while
still on paper before entering it in the
program editor.
Using Debugging utilities
 In the program editor, you can run the
debugging utilities during translation to
detect syntax errors.
Using Test Data
 The programmer carries out trial runs of the
new program. At each run he enters various
data variations and extremes including data
with errors to test whether the system will
grid to a halt. A good program should not
crash due to incorrect data entry but should
inform the user about the anomaly.
Implementation and
maintenance implementation
 This is the actual delivery and installation of
the new program ready for use, creating data
files and train people to use the system. The
new system will change the way things are
done hence it should be reviewed and
maintained.
Review and maintenance
 This stage is important because of the errors
that may be encountered after
implementation. A program may fail due to
poor use, hence proper training and post
implementation support of users will reduce
chances of having them entering invalid data
that crash the program.
Program documentation
 This is writing of support materials
explaining how the program can be used by
users, installed by operators or modified by
other programmers. All stages of program
development should be documented in order
to help during future modification of the
program.
 Types of documentation
 User oriented documentation – these type enables the
user to learn how to use the program as quickly as
possible and with little help from programmer.
 Operator oriented documentation – meant for computer
operators. E.g. Technician. It helps them to install and
maintain the program.
 Programmer oriented documentation – written for
skilled programmers. It provides necessary technician
information to help in future modification of program.
Development of algorithms
 Algorithms – refers to a limited number of
logical steps that a program follows in order
to solve a problem.

 Pseudocode – refers to a set of statements

written in a readable language (English –
like) but expressing the processing logic of a
program.
Guidelines for designing a good pseudocode

 The statements must be short, clear and

readable.
 Pseudocode lines should be clearly
outlined and indented clearly.
 It should show clearly the start and stop of
executable statements and control structures.
 Statements must not have more than one
meaning.
 Examples of Pseudo code
Solution  Write of Pseudo code
START that can be used to
Print “Enter two numbers”
prompt the user to
Input x,y enter two numbers,
Sum – x + y calculate the sum and
Average = sum / 2 average of the two
PRINT sum
numbers and then
PRINT Average
STOP
display the output on
the screen
Program flowcharts
 A flowchart is a diagrammatic representation
of a program in algorithms. It uses statements
and symbols that have specific meaning. The
symbols are of different standard shapes
linked to show the order of processing. Each
shape contains note stating what the operation
is.
Most common program flowcharts
 Ellipse: denotes the beginning and end of the
program algorithm.
 Parallelogram: used to denote an input or output
operation. For example, READ A,B, PRINT
SUM
=A+B
 Rectangle: indicates that a processing or data
transformation is taking place. For example SUM
=A+B.
 Rhombus: used to specify a condition. A condition
must evaluate to a boolean value (True or false) for the
program to execute the next instructions.
 Connector: used as a connecting point or interface for
arrows coming from different directions.
 Arrow: used to indicate the direction of flow of the
Guidelines for drawing a flowchart

 There should be only one entry and one

exit point of a program algorithm.
 Use correct symbol at each stage in the
flowchart.
 Avoid crossed flow lines.
 Be as neat and tidy in drawing as possible.
 General direction of flow in any flowchart
is from top to bottom, left to right.
Examples of flowchart
Solution  Draw a flowchart for a
program used to
prompt the user to
enter two numbers. The
program should find
Sum = X + Y
Average = Z + y/2
the sum, and average
then display the output.
Types of flowchart
 System flowchart – it’s a chart that depicts
the systems as a whole with only subsystems
or major elements shown,

 Program flowchart – this chart shows the

sequence of operations as carried out by a
computer program.
 Advantages of flowchart
 Gives programmer good visual reference of
what the program will do.
 Serves as a program or system
documentation.
 It’s easy to trace through from the start to
find the action resulting from a set of
condition.
 Allows programmers to test alternative
solutions to a problem without over coding
the program.
Disadvantages of flowchart
 There are so many different ways to draw
them.
 it’s difficult to remain neat and uncluttered if
the logic is complex.
 Constructing a flowchart is time
consuming.
 They take up considerable space.
 They are difficult to amend without
redrawing.
Comparison between a pseudocode and a flowchart
Program control structures
 They are blocks of statements that
determine how statements are to be
executed. There are three control
structures namely.

 Sequence
 Selection decision
 Iteration (looping) repetition
Sequence
 In this control structure, the computer reads
instructions from a program file starting from
the first top line and proceeding downwards
one by one to the end. Hence sequential
program execution enables the computer to
perform tasks that are arranged consecutively
one after another in the code.
Example of how a sequential
programs code execute
The
program file
reader
reads

Begin {Procedure name} sequentially

Action 1 statement
Action 2 by
Action statements
End n to the end

{Proced of the file

ure
Selection/decision
 This structure is used to branch, depending on whether the
condition returns a value of True of False (Yes or No).

For example
IF <
Condition >
Then Action 1
Else
Action 2
Endif.

 There are 4 types of selection controls used in high-level

programming.
 IF……….THEN
 IF……THEN……ELSE
IF……….THEN
General format  This is used if only one
IF < condition > Then option is available. All
other options are ignored.
Statement:
For example if a school
EndIf wants to reward only the
students who have mean
If Mark > = 80 then mark of 80 and above, it
Print “Reward” will be reward only those
students who have attained
EndIf
80% and above and ignore
the rest.
IF……….THEN……….ELSE
General Format  Used when there are two
IF < Condition > THEN available options. For
Statements 1 example in a football
ELSE match a player is given a
Statements 2 RED CARD if he does a
EndIf very serious mistake
The algorithem will be:- otherwise he is given a
IF fault = Serious THEN Yellow Card.
Print “RED CARD”
ELSE
Print “yellow Card”
EndIf
Nested IF
 This is used where two or more options have
to be considered to make a selection. For
example, to award grades according to the
marks as follows

a.80 marks Grade A

b.60 marks Grade B
c. 50 marks Grade C
d.40 marks Grade D
General format of Nested IF
General Format The pseudo code segment will be:-
IF <Conditions> Then If Marks = 80 THEN
Grade = “A”
Statement ELSE
ELSE If Marks = 60 THEN
IF <Condition> Then Grade = “B”
Statement ELSE
ELSE If marks = 50 THEN
Grade = “D”
IF <Condition>Then Endif
Statement En
Endif dif
Endif Endif
End
Endif
End
CASE SELECTION
General format
CASE x of
 It’s an alternative to
Label 1 : Statement1 the nested IF. This
Label 2 : Statement2
Label n : Statement n-1
selection is preferred
ELSE to the Nested if in
Statement n order to reduce the
End case
many line s of codes.
Example:- Case selection can
CASE average OF only be expressed
80…100: Grade=“A”
70…79: Grade=“B” using integers and
60…69: Grade=“C” alphabetic characters
40…49:
ELSE
Grade=“E”
only. The Boolean
Grade=“F” expression should be
End Case CASE integer OF or
CASW char OF
Iteration (looping) repetition
 This is designed to execute the same block of
code again and again until a certain condition
is fulfilled. Iteration is important in situations
where the same operation has to be carried
out on a set of data many times. There are
three main looping controls.
 THE-WHILE-DO LOOP
 REPEAT……….UNTIL LOOP
 The FOR LOOP
THE-WHILE-DO LOOP
 This repetitive structure tests the condition
first before executing the successful code if
and only if the Boolean expression returns a
true value.

Example
To withdraw money using an ATM a
customer must have a balance in his/her
account.
General format of THE-WHILE DO LOOP

Flowchart General format

While <condition> Do
Statement
End while
Withdraw cash
update account
Pseudo code segment
While balance >0 do
Withdraw cash
Update account
End while
REPEAT……….UNTIL LOOP
 In this structure the code is executed before testing
the condition. The repeat loop stops when the
Boolean statement returns a value. For example in
the case of ATM discussed above the client can
withdraw money until balance is zero.
Example
Pseudo code segment.
REPEAT
Withdraw cash
Update account
Until balance <0;
General format of REPEAT…………UNTIL LOOP

Flow chart General format

REPEAT
Statement
Withdraw cash UNTIL <condition>
update account.
The FOR LOOP
 This structure is used where execution of the
chosen statements has to be repeated a
predetermined number of times. For example
if a program is to calculate the sum of ten
numbers provided by the user. The FOR
LOOP can be used to prompt the user to enter
the 10 numbers at most ten times. Once the
numbers are entered the program calculates
and displays the sum.
Pseudo code of the FOR LOOP
Pseudo code
FOR count = 1 to 10 DO writeln
“Enter a number (N)”
Readln N
Sum = sum + N
End FOR
Display Sum

The counter has to be set to a start value and

sometimes to an end value.
General format of the FOR LOOP
General format
1. format for the FOR LOOP that counts from lower limit.
For loop variables = lower limit To upper limit Do
Statements
EndFor

2. Format for the ‘For’ loop that counts from upper limit
down to lower limit
For loop variable = Upper limit Down To Lower
Limit Do
Statements
EndFor
Flowchart for a For Loop that counts upward

Loop Variable = lower limit Lower limit = Loop

variable + 1

Statement
Flowchart for a For Loop that counts downwards

Loop Variable = Upper limit Upper limit = Loop

variable - 1

Statement
Examples of complex pseudo codes 1
 Ushirika Society pays 5% interest on shares
exceeding Kshs 10,000 and 3% on shares that do
not meet this target. However no interest is paid on
deposits in the member’s bank account. Design a
pseudo code for a program that would:
a. Prompt the user for shares and deposit of a
particular member.
b. Calculate the interest and total savings.
c. Display the interest and total savings on the screen for a
particular member.
Pseudo code of examples 1
Pseudo code
Start
Input Name, share, Deposit If
share > 10000 THEN Interest
= 0.05*shares ELSE
Interest=0.03*shares
Endif
Total savings = deposits + Interest + shares
Print Name, Totalsaving, Interest
Stop
Flowchart of example 1

Interest = 0.03 * shares

Interest = 0.05 * shares

Totalsavings = deposit + shares + interest

Examples of complex pseudo codes 2

 Botswana has a population of 3,000,000 but

this is falling by 4% each year. The island
of Reunion has a population of 95,000 but
this is increasing by 9% each year.
a. Draw a flowchart that predicts the year in
which the population of reunion will be
greater than that of Botswana if the trend
continues.
Solution of example 2
Pseudo code of example 2
Pseudo code
Start
Bts: = 3,000,000
1R: = 95,000
Year: = 0
REPEAT
Bts = Bts - (Bts * (4 / 100))
1R = 1R + (1R * (9 / 100))
Year = year + 1
UNTIL 1R > Bts
Print
year Stop
Examples of complex pseudo codes 3
 Write a program that will allow the input of name of student
marks obtained in 5 subjects (maths, English, Kiswahili,
computer, biology). The program should calculate the total
and average marks for each student and assign the grades
depending on the average marks obtained as follows.

80 – 100 A
70 – 79
60 – 69 B
50 – 59
Below 50 C
The program should then display each student’s name, total
marks and average grade.
D
 Pseudo code of example 3
Pseudo code If (AVG>60) AND (AVG<69) THEN
START Grade = ‘C’
REPEAT If (AVG>50) AND (AVG<59) THEN
Print “Enter name and subject marks” Grade = ‘D’
Input Name, maths, English, Kiswahili, ELSE
Computer, Biology Grade = ‘E”
Sum = Endif
Maths + English + Kiswahili + Endif
Computer + Biology
AVG = sum / 5 Endif
If (AVG>80) AND (AVG<100)
THEN
Endif
Grade = ‘A’
Print
If (AVG>70) AND (AVG<79) Nam
Stop
THEN
Flowchart of example 3
 Practical activity 1-1
1. Open a text editor program on your computer like NotePad or
WordPad.
2. Type the following program exactly the way it is in the editor.
<HTML>
<HEAD><TITLE>This is my first a webpage</TITLE></HEAD>
<BODY bgcolor = “red”>
<H1><CENTER><B>Hello World</B></CENTER></H1>
</BODY>
</HTML>
3. Save your work as webpage.html on the desktop. Make sure that
the Save As Type box reads “All Files” before clicking the save
button in order to avoid saving a text file with two extensions i.e.
webpage.html.txt.
Practical activity 1-2
4. Close your text editor. Notice that
your file on the desktop has the
icon of the default web browser
installed on your computer.
Double click it to view the web
page! Figure right shows a
sample of the display expected
when the file is loaded to the
browser. If you have a colour
monitor, it should look as below
only that it will have black bold
text on a red background!
5. Check your program and change
your background to blue, save
then click the refresh button.
What happens?
 Review questions 1
1. Define the term computer program.
2. What is programming?
3. State three advantages of high level languages over low level languages.
4. List four examples of languages and for each, state its most appropriate
application area.
5. Why is an executable file unique when compared to any other file?
6. Differentiate between a compiler and an interpreter. Why did early
computers work well with interpreters?
7. List the various examples of programming languages per generation.
8. State one advantage of machine language over the other languages.
9. Write the following in full
A) HTML
B) OOP
10. Distinguish between source program and object code in programming.
11. Define the term encapsulation as used in object oriented programming.
 Answer of review questions 1-1
1. A computer program is a set of instructions that directs a computer on how to
process a particular task.
2. Programming is the writing of computer programs.
3. A). Easier to learn and use.
B) Portable.
C) Flexible.
D) Easier to
correct
errors.
4. A).
FORTRAN –
used for
developing
business
oriented
programs.
Answer of review questions 1-2
7. A). First generation – machine languages.
B) Second generation – assembly languages.
C) Third generation – Pascal, C, COBOL, BASIC, FOTRAN, Ada
etc.
D) Fourth generation – Visual Basic, Delphi Pascal, Visual COBOL etc.
E) Fifth generation languages – PROLOG, Mercury, LISP, OCCAM
etc.
8. A). The processor executes them faster. B).
They are more stable.
9. A). HTML – Hypertext Markup Language.
B). OOP – Object Oriented Programming
language
10. Source program refers to a program that is not yet translated while
object code refers to the program code that is in machine readable form.
11. Encapsulation refers to the process of joining data and instruction
together to form an object.
 Review questions 2
1. Give one advantage of compiling a program
rather than interpreting it.
2. Outline at least six stages of program
development in their respective order.
3. Highlight two advantages of monolithic
programs.
4. State two advantages of modular
programming.
5. In what stage of the development does program
documentation fall? Justify your answer.
6. Differentiate between a flowchart and pseudocode.
7. What is a program bug?
Answer of review questions 2-1
1. A). Interpreters translate the source program one statement at a time
while compilers translate the entire source code at once before execution.
B)Interpreters translate the program each time it runs hence slower than
compiling. Compiled programs can be saved on a storage media.
This means that it does not require any further transaction every time
the program is run hence executes faster than interpreted programs.
C) Interpreters translation takes less memory while compiled
programs require more memory as the object code files are larger.
2. A). Problem recognition.
B). Problem definition.
C). Program design.
D) Program coding.
E) Program testing and debugging. F).
Implementation.
Answer of review questions 2-1
3. A). They are difficult to test and debug. B).
They are difficult to modify or upgrade.
4. A). They are easy to test and debug.
B). They are easy to modify and upgrade.
5. Documentation is done at all stages of program
development.
6. A flowchart is a graphical representation of step-by- step
processing logic of a program while a pseudocode is a set of
structured-English like statements that describe the step-by-
step processing logic of a program.
7. Bugs refers to program errors.
8. To correct any syntax or logical errors.
Review questions 3
1. State the factors you would consider when
A) Writing a pseudocode
B) Drawing a flowchart
2. Using illustrations, explain at least six symbols used in
flowchart design.
3. Give one advantage of pseudocodes over flowcharts.
4. Write a pseudocode for a program that would be used to
solve the equation
E = MC2
5. Draw a flowchart that would be used to classify animals
according to sex. If a letter M is input the program should
display ‘Male’ otherwise it should display ‘Female’.
Answer of review questions 3-1
1. A). Pseudocode 2. Decision – used to represent a
1)Statements must be short and decision construct.
clear.
2)Statements should be Connector – connects logic
unambiguous. flows.
3)Should shoe start and stop. 4).
Words used should be suggestive Process – indicates a
such as READ, transformation of data.
PRINT, OUTPUT etc.
B). Flowchart Input/output – shows
1). A flowchart should have program input/output.
one entry and one exit point.
2). Use correct symbols.
Ellipse – indicates start/stop of
3). The flow should be clearly algorithm.
indicated using arrows.
Answer of review questions 3-2
3. Pseudocodes are
easier to write and
understand.
4. Start
Enter values form
M and C
E=M*C*C
Display E
Stop
Review questions 4
1. Define the term selection in relation to program
control structures.
2. State three types of control structures used in
programming.
3. Differentiate between looping and selection.
4. In what circumstance does looping depend on
decision?
5. List four selection controls used in writing a
program.
 Answer of review questions 4
1. Selection refers to a situation where further program execution
depend one making a decision from two more alternatives.
2. Sequence, decision and iteration.
3. Looping refers to a situation where the same block of code is
executed repeatedly until a certain condition is fulfilled, while
selection refers to a situation where further program execution
depends on making a decision from two or more alternatives.
4. Looping may depend on decision if a condition has to be met
before the looping terminates or continues.
5. A). IF…THEN
B) IF….THEN…ELSE
C) Nested IF D).
Case
 Revision questions 1
1. State three reasons why high level languages are better than low level
languages.
2. Explain why HTML is not true programming language.
3. List three examples of forth generation programming languages.
4. Describe the term structured programming.
5. Define the term structured programming.
6. A) State two reasons for documenting all the
stages of program
development.
B)Give three types of program documentation in reference to
7. programming.
Write HTML code that would display a green background, with the words
8. ‘Hello’ on the screen.
A)DrawThea nested
flowchart showing the general flow of the following:
IF selection.
B) The FOR loop.
C) REPEAT….UNTIL loop.
Answer of revision questions 1-1
1. A). They are portable
B). They are user friendly C).
They are more flexible D).
They are easier to debug
2. HTML is not a true programming language because it does not have a true
format of a programming language. For example, it does not have a
declaration part and control structures.
3. A). Visual Basic
B). Delphi Pascal
C). Visual COBOL
4. Fifth generation programming languages are designed in a way that
enables programmers design programs that emulate human intelligence.
5. In structured programming, a program is broken down into
components called modules each performing a particular task.
Answer of revision questions 1-2
6. A). Reasons for documenting
i. There may rise a need to revise or modify it.
ii. Other people may think of ways of improving your program by
studying at the documentation.
B) Types of documentation
i. User-oriented.
ii. Operator-oriented.
iii. Programmer-oriented.
7. <HTML>
<HEAD><TITLE>Hello program </TITLE></HEAD>
<BODY bgcolour = “blue”>
<H3><CENTRE><B>Hello</B></CENTER></H3>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Answer of revision questions 1-3
Answer of revision questions 1-4
 Revision questions 2
1. Write a program algorithm that would enable the user to
enter student marks. The program should then determine
whether the mark entered is a pass or fail given that the
pass mark is 50.
2. Draw a flowchart for a program that is to prompt for N
numbers, accumulate the sum and then find the average.
The output is the accumulated totals and the average.
3. Write a pseudocode that reads temperature for each day in
a week, in degree Celsius, converts the Celsius into
Fahrenheit's and then calculate the average weekly
temperatures. The program should output the calculated
average in degrees Fahrenheit's.
Answer of revision questions 2-1
Answer of revision questions 2-2
3. START
Input temperature in ℃
et initial day to 0
WHILE initial day 6 DO
Input temperature in ℃
F=32+(9C/5)
Initial day=initial day + 1
Cummulative = cummulative + F
END WHILE
Average weekly temperature
= cummulative/7
Print Average
STOP
Revision questions 3
1. A lady deposits 2,000 shillings in a Microfinance company
at an interest rate of 20% per annum. At the end of each
year, the interest earned is added to the deposit and the new
amount becomes the deposit for that year. Write an
algorithm for a program that would track the growth of the
deposits over a period of seven years.
2. Mukumu took a loan of Ksh 400,000 from a local bank at
an interest rate of 10% payable in four years. Assuming
you wish to develop a computer program that will keep
track of monthly repayments:
A) Identify the input, processing and output
requirements for such a program.
B) Design the algorithm for the program using a simple
flowchart and pseudocode.
Answer of revision questions 3-1
1. START
Input initial deposit
Input interest rate
Set deposit to initial deposit
Set year to 0
WHILE year < 7 DO
Interest = Deposit *
interest rate
Total = Deposit + interest
Deposit = Total
Year = Year + 1
END WHILE
PRINT Deposit, Year
STOP
Answer of revision questions 3-2

2. A).
Inputs – initial amount borrowed
- Interest rate
- Number of years
Processing – the equation to calculate
monthly repayments.
Output – monthly repayments calculated by
the process
Answer of revision questions 3-3
2. B).
START
Input initial loan borrowed
Input interest rate Input
number of years
Calculate yearly
repayments Monthly
repayments
= yearly repayments/12
Display monthly
repayments
STOP
 Chapter
System
4 development

289
A system
 Is a set of items linked together to carry out a
given task in order to achieve one or more
objectives. A system is described as being
either soft or hard.
Soft systems and hard systems
 Soft systems – human activity are said to be soft
systems. They are said to be soft because:
 Their boundaries may be fluid or keep on changing.
 Their goals and objectives conflict.
 It’s difficult to precisely define exact measures of
performance for them.
 Hard systems – these are systems whose goals and
objectives are clearly defined and the outcomes
from the systems processes are predictable and
can be modeled accurately.
System classification
 Deterministic system – these are systems whose
output are known precisely by their inputs e.g. a
computer system.
 Probabilistic system – these are systems whose
output can only be predicted but not knows
precisely e.g. business and economic system
organisation.
 Cybernetic systems – these are self controlling
systems which adapt to the environment and
regulate their own behaviour by accessing the
feedback. They access their output and adjust the
input e.g. human beings, plants systems
Characteristic of systems
1. Holistic thinking 7. Interdependence
2. Sub systems 8. Feedback
3. Processor 9. Control
4. Objectives/purpose 10. Inputs and Outputs
5. Environment 11. System Entropy
6. Boundaries
Holistic thinking and sub systems
 Holistic thinking – in this, a system is considered as
a whole. A combination of various components that
makes up a system creates a complex whole whose
overall goals are more sophisticated than those of
the individual components.

 Sub systems – a system is made up of different

components (subsystem). Therefore a system does
not exist in solitude but it may be a component of a
large system.
Processor and objectives/purpose

 Processor – this is an element of a system that

does the actual transformation of input into
output.

 Objectives/purpose – objectives of a system

may be real or stated. An organization should
state one objective and operate to achieve
another user must know the major objective
of a system.
Environment and boundaries
 Environment – the environment is the
system within an organisation operates.
Environment provides a reason for the
existence of the system.

 Boundaries – system boundaries are the

external element whose changes in attitudes,
behaviour and property affect their state and
are affected respectively i.e. it’s the limit of
system.
Interdependence and feedback
 Interdependence – for a system to be
effective and efficient, its components or
subsystems must be coordinated and linked
together.

 Feedback – a feedback is a check within a

system to see whether predetermined goals
are being met. The checks are conducted on a
system to determine deviation.
Control and inputs and outputs
 Control – this is the
process by which the
system adapts to changes
in the environment in
order to give the
expected level.
 Inputs and outputs – a
system communicates
with its environment by
receiving inputs and
giving outputs.
System Entropy
 Entropy means decay. System ‘decay’
naturally over time, hence it slowly becomes
useless to the user either due to improvement
in technology, new management or change in
user requirements. Therefore it must be
reviewed in order to improve it or develop a
new one.
Open and closed system
 An open system receives input from and
gives output to the environment while a
closed system does not interact with the
environment.
Information system
 This is a set of persons, procedures and
technologies and other resources that collects,
transforms and disseminates information in
the system e.g. organisation.
Purpose of information system
 To provide the people within an
organisation with information to assist in
decision making process.
 To provide responsive service to meet
user needs.
 To enable sharing of information.
 To facilitate interaction and dissemination of
data throughout the various level of
organisation.
Why develop new information system?
 New changes in organisation – management can
introduce new changes, and they have to be
implement to meet the needs of the organisation.
 Problems in the current system – the undesirable
circumstances in the current system that prevent the
organisation from meeting its goal.
 New opportunities – if an opportunity presents
itself that can enable the organisations improve its
services.
Theories of system development

 The most common theories include:

 Traditional Approach.

 Rapid Application Development (RAD).

 The Structured Approach.

Traditional Approach
 This approach relies mostly on the skills and
experience of individual staff members
carrying out of the project. In this approach,
the manual system is replaced with a
computerized one without change in overall
structure of the former system. Hence the
weakness of the former system are not
addressed, they are forwarded to the new
system.
Rapid Application Development (RAD)

 RAD model evolved from the theory that

business today heavily rely on information
technology, hence, development and
implementation of information system needs
to be quick enough for the organisation to
maintain a competitive advantage in the
market place.
Structured Approach
 In this approach a system development
defines a set of stages that should be
followed when developing a system.
Stage of system development
 Problem recognition
and definition
 Information gathering
 Requirements
specification
 System design
 System
construction
 System
implementation
 Problem recognition and definition
 Problem recognition is the initial stage where the analyst decides if
the project is really necessary to look into, and if its necessary to
start a new project. In problem definition, the problem must be
thoroughly defined. A through survey of the problem is undertaken
by identifying the problem, understanding it, and finding out of
there is a possibility of getting a solution. Before a new system is
designed, a special study will be carried out to establish the costs
and benefits of a new system. The study is called feasibility
study. Feasibility study of a system is accessed in four ways.
 Operational feasibility
 Technical feasibility
 Economic feasibility
 Schedule feasibility
Operational feasibility and technical feasibility

 Operational feasibility – this establishes the

extend to which the users are comfortable or
happy with the proposed or new system.

 Technical feasibility – this establishes

whether the technology available is
sufficient or can be upgraded for the new
system.
Economic feasibility and schedule feasibility

 Economic feasibility – it establishes

whether the technology available is
sufficient or can be upgraded for the new
system.

 Schedule feasibility – it establishes whether

the development of the proposed system will
be accomplished within the available time.
Information gathering
 The system analyst gathers data about the
current system and the users needs from both
internal and external sources. Some of the
methods used to collect or gather data
include:

 Record inspection
 Interview
 Questionnaires
Record inspection and interview
 The documents maintained in
connection to the system are
referenced. This forms a good
starting point for the analyst to
gain an overall insight of the
existing system.
 Interview – this is a face to
face communication between
the analysts as the interviewer
and the affected personnel as
interviewee. The questions are
geared to getting the
information needed by the
analysts.
Advantages of interview
 The analysts is accessible to first class
information.

 Make interviewee feel as part of the

system.

 Give adequate opportunity for interviewee, an

opportunity to put forward opinions.
Disadvantages of interview
 Make the interviewee feel they are being
summoned by the analysts.
 Some interviewees give answers which are
not actually proven facts but opinions.
 The interviewee may not fully open on
some issues that may be personal.
 The interviewee may be suspicious of the
intentions of the proposed system for fear of
being displaced by new system.
Questionnaires
 A questionnaire is a
document containing a
number of standard questions
set to be asked to a larger
number of people in order to
gather information from
them. The analyst is able to
collect information from
several key people in the
organisation who may be
affected by the current
proposed system.
When the use questionnaire
 When limited amount of information is
required from a large number of people.

 There is a large number of people involved in

the system project.

 The people you need to gather information

from are vastly despersed.
Advantages of questionnaires
 Answers filled in less tense environment.
 Since they are filled and returned in
privacy, more sincere responses are
possible.
 Questionnaire provides many people with
the opportunity to provide input and
suggestion.
 Questionnaire saves time especially where
respondents are geographically scattered.
Disadvantages of questionnaires

 It’s a slow way of facts gathering.

 Designing questionnaires requires
expertise.
 Some questions can be easily
misunderstood hence ambiguous replies
will be received.
 Analysis of questionnaires requires a lot of
time.
Observation
 This requires the observer to participate or
watch closely as a person performs activities
in order to learn about the system. This
method gives the analysts first hand
experience about the problems and expenses
to the system requirements.
Advantages of observation
 Concepts that are too difficult for non-
technical staff to explain can be observed.
 It helps the analysts become acquainted
with operational personnel.
 It helps the analysts acquire ‘know how’
needed to assist in changes that have been
recommended.
 Can correct ‘hazy’ understanding or
erroneous impressions.
Disadvantages of observation
 It’s costly and time consuming.

 Staff members are not comfortable when

they are being watched.
Automated method
 This is mostly used when actual data is
required but difficult to get through interviews,
observation or questionnaires. Such data is
collected using devices that automatically
capture data from the source.
E.g. video, cameras, tape recorders etc.
Requirements specification
 The system analyst must come with the
detailed requirements for the new system.
The requirements specifications include:

 Output specification
 Input specification
 File/data stores
 Hardware and software requirements
Output specification
 The output specifications entails activities
like generation of reports used to facilitate
decision making. The output can be in the
form of reports either in hardcopy or
softcopy. The quality of those reports is
important. Formality of reports is important
so that good quality reports are produced for
easy understanding.
Input specification
 The input to the system in necessary because
the contents of the input are used to maintain
the master files. The following should be
considered in input specification.

 The contents and volume of input.

 The mode and devices of input selected.
 Layout and sequence of input.
File/data stores
 File requirement involves making an
informed decision on file required to store
data and information in the system. The
analyst should identify the number of files
that will be needed by the system and
determine the structure of each file.
Hardware and software requirements

 System analyst should specify all hardware

and software requirements for the new
system. He/she should consider:

 Economic factors e.g. price

 Operational factors e.g. reliability
 User friendliness.
System design
 This involves detailing the physical design of
the system, it’s the how of the process. Once
the logical design is put lined during system
analysis, the analyst determines the physical
design, which describes the hardware,
software and operating procedures required to
make system operational. Several tools are
used for designing an information system.
Examples are flowchart, data flow diagram,
requirements.
System construction
 This refers to coding, installation and testing
of the modules and their components such as
outputs, inputs and files. The purpose of the
construction is to develop and test a
functional system that fulfills the business
and design requirements.
Testing the system
 The system is tested by entering some test
data to find out whether its output are as
expected. The system is tested using the
requirements specifications and the design
specification to find out whether it meets all
requirements specified.
System implementation
 This involves installing the system in the
user’s computers, testing the installed
system, converting from old system to the
new one and training the users. System
implementation involves:
 File creation and conversion.
 Change over.
 Staff training
File creation and conversion
 This involves setting up of the master files
that are to be used in the support of the new
system. The setting can be either from scratch
or just to convert the files that were employed
in old system.
Training staff
 The training aim at:

 Convincing the staff of the user department on

the effectiveness of the new system.

 Remove fear of change from them.

 Enabling the staff to cope with processing

task of the new system.
Methods of training
 Demonstration
 Film show
 Manual reference
 Group discussion
 Visits
Changeover
 This is the process of changing over from
old system to the new system.

 Type of changeover
 Direct changeover
 Parallel changeover
 Phase changeover
Direct changeover
 In this approach the new system commence live
operation and immediately the old system is
abandoned.

 Advantage of direct changeover

 It’s a cheap method

 Disadvantages of direct changeover

 Extremely risky
 Places an organization in a do or die situation.
Parallel changeover
 In this changeover the operation of the old system
and the new system run alongside each other.

 Advantages of parallel changeover

 Provides a method of training in the new system.
 Personnel become familiar with the new system prior to
actual changeover.
 Disadvantages of parallel changeover
 Costly to run two systems
 Cross checking is difficult
 Requires more staff hence more training required for
additional staff
Phase changeover
 In this approach implementation is done only one
part of the new system at one time or a step by step.

 Advantages of phase changeover

 Allow the system to be implemented quickly
 Less costly
 Failures of the system are limited
 Causes minimal disruption
 Disadvantage of phase changeover
 Problemson ensuring that the first phase is
implemented and converted.
System review and maintenance

 System maintenance is the adjustment and

enhancement or correction of errors after
the system has been implemented. The
reviewing involves going through the
specification and testing the system after
implementation to find out whether it still
meets the original specification.
 System documentation consists of
 Report of fact finding which outlines methods used to collect data,
weakness of the current system and recommendation of the current
system.
 Requirements specification which entails the output requirements, input,
hardware and software required for the new system.
 System flowchart which shows the overall functionality of te proposed
information system.
 Tables or file structures depending on the approach used in system
construction.
 Sample test data to test whether the new computerized information
system is working as expected.
 User manual which helps the user work with the new system with
minimal guidance. The manual contains information like
 How to install, start the system
 The interface of the system
 How to carry out various tasks
 Error correction and how to get help
Review questions 1
1. Define the term information system.
2. Differentiate between soft systems and hard
systems.
3. List five characteristics of a system.
4. What is system control?
5. Why do we need feedback in a system?
6. Explain the tem system boundary.
7. State and explain three purposes of information
systems in organisations.
8. Define the term online analytical processing?
9. Draw a well labelled diagram that depicts a
system that is controlled through feedback.
Answer of review questions 1-1
1. An information system is the arrangement of people, data,
processes and information that work together to support and
improve the day-to-day business operations.
2. In soft systems, goals are not clearly defined unlike in hard
systems.
3. A). Holistic thinking
B). Subsystems.
C) Boundary and
environment.
D) Purpose.
E) Process.
F) System entropy. G).
Inputs and outputs.
H). Open and closed
systems.
I). Control
Answer of review questions 1-2
5. Feedback is needed in order to 8. Online analytical processing is
adjust controls for better whereby a computer based
performance of the system. information system is used to
6. System boundary is the scope capture operational data,
within which a system analyse and generate reports to
component operates. be used for supporting decision
7. A). Supports information making process in an
processing tasks. organisation.
B). Supports decision making. 9. .
C). Supports sharing of
information.
Review questions 2
1. Explain three system development theories and methods.
2. State the main disadvantage of Rapid Application Development
method.
3. Define the term system development lifecycle.
4. At what stage does the system change hands from the development stage
to the users.
5. Highlight three circumstances that necessitate the development of
new information systems.
6. Define the term feasibility study as used in system development.
7. State four methods that can be used to gather information during
system development.
8. State two advantages of interview over questionnaires.
9. State two disadvantages of interview method when used for
information gathering.
10. Give one example of automated information gathering technique.
 Answer of review questions 2-1
1. A). Traditional approach. 5. A). New opportunities.
B). Rapid Application B). Problems
Development (RAD) C). Directives.
C). Structure approach. 6. Feasibility study is a special
2. The main disadvantage of study carried out to establish
RAD is that the system may the costs and benefits of a new
be weak due to quick system.
development. 7. A). Interviews
3. System development life B). Questionnaires
cycle refers to the steps C). Observation
followed in developing a
system for conception to D) Study of available
review and maintenance. documents.
4. At the implementation E) Automated
stage. methods.
Answer of review questions 2-2
8. A). Non-verbal communication can be used or
observed.
B). Questions can be rephrased for clarity.
9. A). It is difficult to organise for an interview due to
time constraint.
B). The interviewee may not fully open up some
sensitive issues due to security concern.
10. An example of automated information gathering
technique is the use of a video camera to compare
motion pictures.
Review questions 3
1. Outline the four areas that are considered
during the requirements specification stage.
2. Explain at least three factors that should be put into
consideration during output design.
3. State four factors that may be considered in
order to design a good file.
4. Explain why it is important to consider file
backup and recovery strategies during file
design.
Answer of review questions 3
1. A). Output 3. A). Record key field
B). Input B). Type of data
C). Files C). Length of each field
D). Hardware and D). Backup and recovery
software requirements. strategies.
2. A). Target i.e. the 4. Back up and recovery
audience. strategy helps in making
B)Frequency of report sure that if the current file
generation gets corrupted, it is
C) Quality and format possible to reconstruct the
original file.
Revision questions 1
1. Outline seven steps followed in structured system
development.
2. Explain three tasks that are carried out during system
implementation.
3. Outline three disadvantages of questionnaires.
4. Explain the concept of proxemics in interviews.
5. Give an advantages of straight changeover over
parallel
changeover.
6. Define the term file conversion.
7. Differentiate between a system flowchart and a
program
flowchart.
8. Draw four system flowchart symbols and explain their
 Answer of revision questions 1-1
1. A). Problem recognition and 3. A). Good questionnaires
definition. are difficult to prepare.
B) Requirement
specification. B)The respondent may not
C) System design. understand some
D) System construction. E). questions.
System implementation.
F). System review and C)The respondent has the
maintenance. final say on when to fill
2. A). File conversions. and return the
B) Staff training. questionnaire. Most of
C) Project management. D). them end up not being
Changeover filled or returned hence it
is disadvantageous to the
researcher.
Answer of revision questions 1-2
4. Proxemics refer to issues
related to physical contact
such as sitting arrangement
during an interview.
5. Straight changeover is
cheaper to implement than
parallel changeover.
6. File conversion refers to
changing files from one format
to another.
7. A system flowchart is for the
entire system while a program
flowchart is for a part or a
module in the system. Therefore,
several program flowcharts may
be derived from a single system
flowchart.
Revision questions 2
1. Define the term “attribute”.
2. Explain the importance of using automated methods in fact
finding.
3. Why is observation sometimes disadvantageous when used
in fact finding?
4. State one of the disadvantages of the traditional
approach in system development.
5. Outline the factors that should be considered when sourcing
for hardware and software resources required for a new
system.
6. Outline some of the contents of a user manual that
would help the user run the system with minimal
guidance.
Answer of revision questions 2
1. Entity attributes refer to characteristics of a particular entity.
2. Automated methods of data collection can be used in areas which are
not easily accessible.
3. A). The person being observed might alter his or her behaviour.
B). It may be time consuming.
4. The weaknesses of the former system are not addressed.
5. A). Economic factors.
B) Operational.
C) Services from the vendor.
6. A). Installation procedures.
B). User interface.
C). How to carry out various tasks.
D). Test data and expected output E).
Troubleshooting guide
Practical exercise 1
 Extract the book
return module
flowchart from the
system flowchart
depicted in figure
right.
END

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