Chapter 2-C

 Instrument Navigation
 How to get from here to there, maybe a holding
pattern, fly an approach and then a perfect landing
 Have to scan and understand what the nav
instruments are telling you
 Cross reference other nav info to support
 Be able to see a trend on the nav instruments
 Your basic attitude flying is second nature, must be
the great teacher you have, giving you more time to
evaluate the nav data
 What shall we cover
 VOR = very high freq Omni dir bearing range
 Stations, tracking, instrument knowledge, and some
little hints for perfect tracking
 ADF= Automatic Direction Finder
 Primitive ,yet will get you there
 One of the oldest methods
 Going out of business
 Still able to get the news on the radio
 A few more nav aids
 DME=distance measuring equipt
 Line of sight
 Arcs
 Used to identify positions and fixes
 RNAV
 Area navigation
 Best thing since toast
 INS
 Inertial Navigation Systems
 Have you heard of these
 LORAN
 Long range navigation
 GPS
 Global positioning system
 Inertial Reference Systems
 The VOR Indicators
 A few indicators
This lesson assumes you know something
about the VOR system
 We will cover
 Vor navigation, tracking, arcs, errors and
methods to improve your skills
 The textbook uses the HSI as the indicator
 The HSI= horizontal situation indicator
 This is the instrument you will be using for
most of your commercial flying
 Looks like a lot of stuff, but it will make your
navigation easier
 Some VOR items
 A review for you great aviators
 Freq range= 108.1-117.95MHz
 Range=depends on vor type
 Line of sight
 Low and high charts, using the 18,000 altitude
 Will be around for some time
 The VOR system
 10,000 bonus points= what does VOR stand for
 VOR Facilities

Limited to
Line of Sight

± .5° Accuracy
Instrument Pilot - Principles of
03/23/2023 Instrument Flight - Chapter 2C 12
 VOR Facilities
Standard High
Altitude Service Volume
What Is The
60,000 ft
100 n.m.
Range?
45,000 ft

130 n.m. Standard Low

Altitude Service Volume
Standard Terminal
18,000 ft 18,000 ft Service Volume
14,500 ft 100 n.m. 12,000 ft

40 n.m. 40 n.m. 25 n.m.

1,000 ft 1,000 ft 1,000 ft

Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc. 1998 All Rights Reserved

Guided Flight Discovery Instrument/Commercial Manual
Instrument Pilot - Principles of
03/23/2023 Instrument Flight - Chapter 2C 13
luizmonteiro - Online Simulators - VOR Simulator.html
 Interpreting VOR Indications
Orientation and Bracketing

What happens at station passage?

Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc. 1998 All Rights Reserved
Guided Flight Discovery Private Pilot Manual
Instrument Pilot - Principles of
03/23/2023 Instrument Flight - Chapter 2C 16
 VOR Navigation Procedures
Time and Distance
 Turn perpendicular.
 Start timing when centered.
 Change OBS 10 degrees.
 Stop timing when centered.
 Turn toward station.
 Calculate time and distance.

Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc. 1996 All Rights Reserved

Jeppesen Sanderson Instrument/Commercial Manual
Instrument Pilot - Principles of
03/23/2023 Instrument Flight - Chapter 2C 18
 Use of vor to measure time/dist
 Time to station
 Time for bearing change x 60 / degrees of
bearing change
 Distance to station
 Time for bearing change x TAS / degrees of
bearing change
 Intercept a radial and track
 Gives a display of your relationship to the
radial
 Shows to or from the station
 Displays the location of the course, left or right
of aircraft
One degree offset equals one nautical mile
when sixty nautical miles from the origin
Distance from VOR 1
degree = ?nm
60 1
30 .50
15Distance from VOR 1
degree = ?nm
60 1
30 .50
15 .25
10 .16
.25
10 .16
 The HSI
 Horizontal Situation Indicator
 Gives information about your aircraft heading
and its relationship to the course selected
 Best thing since sliced bread
 Use it and you will never go back
 The Horizontal situation indicator (HSI
1. The horizontal situation indicator (HSI) is a combination of the
heading indicator and the VOR/ILS indicator as illustrated below.

a. The compass card – rotates so that the heading is shown under

the index at the top of the instrument

1) The compass card may be part of a remote indicating

compass (RIC) or,

2) The compass card must be checked against the magnetic

compass and reset with a heading set knob.

Advanced avionics handbook

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b. The course select pointer--the VOR (OBS) indicator.

c. The TO/FROM indicator for the VOR.

d. Glide slope deviation pointer--indicates above or below the glide slope,

which is the longer center line.

e. Glide slope warning flag-- comes out when reliable signals are not received
by the glide slope receiver.
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f. Heading set knob--used to coordinate the heading indicator (directional gyro,
etc.) with the actual compass.

1) If the compass card is part of the RIC, this knob is normally a heading
bug (pointer) set knob that moves a bug around the periphery of the
azimuth card.

g. Lubber line--shows the current heading.

h. Course deviation bar--indicates the direction you would have to turn to

intercept the desired radial if you were on the approximate heading of the
OBS selection.
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i. The symbolic aircraft – a fixed symbol that shows the airplane
relative to the selected course as though you were above the
airplane looking down

j. The course select knob – used to adjust the OBS

k. Heading select bug – indicates the heading selected with the

heading select knob

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2, Airplane displacement from a course is approximately 200 ft. per dot per NM
on VORs.

a. At 30 NM out, one dot is 1 NM displacement; two dots, 2 NM.

b. At 60 MN out, one dot is 2 NM displacement; two dots, 4 NM

3. A full scale deflection of a VOR CDI indicates a 10° deviation from the
course centerline.

a. About 10° to 12° of change of the OBS setting should deflect The CDI
from the center to the last dot.

b. With the CDI centered, rotate the OBS 180° to change the ambiguity
(TO/FROM) indication.

FAA PHAK

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The key to your use of an aircraft using a VOR
system for IFR flight is contained in subsection (d) of
the rule. That subsection states in part, 'Each person
making the VOR operational check, as specified in
paragraph (b) or (c) of this section, shall enter the
date, place, bearing error, and sign the aircraft log or
other record.' If a test signal is used as part of the
test, there is a record requirement for the test signal.

Reference FAR Part 91.171 for VOR details

 VOR Facilities
Accuracy Checks
 Ground Checkpoint
 Airborne Checkpoint
 Airway Checkpoint
 Dual VOR Check
33 0
30
27 3
24 6
21 9
18 15 12
OBS

Instrument Pilot - Principles of

03/23/2023 Instrument Flight - Chapter 2C 36
 The limits
 VOR TEST VOT test
 Location on airport
 Radiates a 360 degree radial
 Limit +/- 4 degrees
 May also be used airborne
 VOR CHECKPOINTS
 Located on airport
 Will list distance and radial
 Limit +/- 4 degrees
 Just a few more
 AIRBORNE CHECK
 Easily identifiable checkpoint
 Limit +/- 6 degrees
 Use of airway radial
 Should be at least 20nm from station
 Limit +/- 6 degrees
 DUAL CHECK
 Limit 4 degrees
 Some highlights
 VOR station passage, first positive complete
reversal of TO/FROM indicator
 Know the VOR receiver checks, and the
currency of the vor check, where they are
recorded, how often they must be done.
 Within 30 days, noted who did check, date,
place, bearing error and signature of person
completing the check
 VOR Stations
1. When VORs are undergoing maintenance, the coded and/or voice
identification is not broadcast from the VOR.

2. DME/TACAN coded identification is transmitted one time for each three or

four times the VOR identification is transmitted.

a. If the VOR is out of service, the DME identification will be transmitted

about once every 30 seconds at 1350 Hz.

Nav sim

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3. A full-scale (from the center position to either side of the dial) deflection of a
VOR CDI indicates a 10° deviation from the course centerline.

a. About 10° to 12° of change of the OBS setting should deflect the CDI
from the center to the last dot.

Nav sim

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4. An (H) Class VORTAC facility has a range of 40 NM from 1,000 ft. AGL to
14,500 ft. AGL, and a range of 100 NM from 14,500 ft. AGL to 18,000 ft.

a. To use (H) Class VORTAC facilities to define a direct route of flight at

17,000 ft. MSL, the facilities should be no farther apart than 200 NM.

b. Generally, for IFR operation off of established airways below 18,000 ft.,
VOR navigational aids should be no more than 80 NM apart.

5. VOR station passage is indicated by a complete reversal of the TO/FROM

indicator.

a. If after station passage the CDI shows a ½-scale deflection and remains
constant for a period of time, you are flying away from the selected
radial.

Nav sim

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 DME
 Use slant range
 Co-located with VOR stations
 Ultra High Freq
 Accurate to within ½ mile or 3% whichever is
greater
 Range 199nm
 Coded Morse Code ID every 30 seconds
 Distance Measuring Equipment
Basic Concept

Slant Range
1.4 n.m.
1 n.m.

1 n.m.

Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc. 1998 All Rights Reserved

Guided Flight Discovery Instrument/Commercial Manual
Instrument Pilot - Principles of
03/23/2023 Instrument Flight - Chapter 2C 44
 Area navigation, RNAV
 Use VOR, DME, IRS, GPS
 The future will most likely be a form of RNAV
 Use of RNP Required Nav Performance
 FMS= Flight Management Systems
 GPS
 Satellite nav
 WAAS= Wide Area Augmentation System
 Use of corrective nav messages
 Where are you
 Are you where you think you are, is the
display in agreement with the other
instruments for navigation
 RNP= REQUIRED NAVIGATION PERF
 Accuracy 95% of the time within
 2nm enroute
 1nm terminal area
 .3nm approach
 Some more GPS
 RAIM=Receiver Autonomous Integrity
Monitoring
 How many satellites are available for the
approach
 Need 4 satellite for position and altitude, the 5
monitors the others
 More on the WAAS (WIDE AREA
AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS)
 Corrective message to improve accuracy
 GPS
1. You should refer to the flight manual supplement to determine if an installed
GPS is approved for IFR en route and IFR approaches.

a. Hand-held GPS systems certified for VFR operation may be used during
IFR operations only as an aid to situational awareness.

b. VFR waypoints are not recognized by IFR systems and will be rejected for
IFR routing.

FAA PHAK

Advanced avionics handbook

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2. During IFR en route and terminal operations using an approved GPS
system for navigation, the aircraft must be equipped with an approved and
operational alternate navigation system that is appropriate to the route.

a. Any ground-based navigational facilities required for use with the alternate
navigation system (e.g., VORs, NDBs, etc.) must be available and
operational along the entire route of flight.

b. It is not necessary to actively monitor an alternate means of navigation

unless the GPS is not equipped with Receiver Autonomous Integrity
Monitoring (RAIM), or RAIM becomes unavailable or predicts an outage.

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3. To effectively navigate by means of GPS, pilots should

a. Determine the GPS unit is approved for their planned flight

b. Determine the status of the databases

1) The current status of navigational databases, weather databases,

NOTAMs, and signal availability should be ensured prior to takeoff.

2) When in flight, compare the GPS database to the Enroute Low

Altitude.
chart. If they are the same, the GPS database is current.

c. Understand how to make and cancel all appropriate entries

1) Stressful situations, heavy workloads, and turbulence make data

entry errors real problems, and pilots should know how to recover
basic aircraft controls quickly.

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4. One of the primary benefits of satellite-based area navigation (e.g., GPS or
RNAV) is that it permits aircraft to fly optimum routes and altitudes.

5. Due to the use of, and reliance on, GPS systems for navigation, it is easy
for pilots to lose proficiency in performing manual calculations on courses,
times, distances, headings etc.

a. Emergency situations (i.e., electrical failures) make it important to

maintain proficiency in these calculations.

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6. Bear in mind that although handheld GPS units are excellent aid to
situational awareness, they are not an approved navigation source for any
IFR operation, regardless of whether you are in visual or instrument
meteorological conditions.

7. VFR waypoints have been created for VFR traffic only. These waypoints,
identified with five letters and beginning with "VP," are for VFR pilots only.
While VFR waypoints are specific to GPS users, they cannot be used in
IFR flight plans. VFR waypoints are not recognized by the IFR system and
will be rejected for IFR pouting

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8. There are limitations on and benefits to the operation of GPS units. These
must be considered prior to flight.

a. Aircraft using GPS TSO-C129 or TSO-C196 navigation equipment under

IFR must be equipped with an approved and operational alternate means
of navigation appropriate to the flight.

b. GPS is not authorized as a substitute means of navigation guidance

when conducting a conventional approach at an alternate airport.

1) If the approach procedure requires either a distance measuring

equipment (DME) or automatic direction finder (ADF), the aircraft
must be equipped with the appropriate DME or ADF avionics in order
to use the approach as an alternate.

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c. GPS database updates are done on a 28-day cycle.

d. WAAS improves the accuracy of GPS. If for some reason the WAAS
service becomes unavailable, all GPS- or WAAS-equipped aircraft can
revert to the LNAV MDA and land safely using GPS only, which is
available nearly 100% of the time.

1) A WAAS-enabled GPS unit provides advisory vertical guidance in

association with LP or LNAV approaches using the notation of
LNAV+V. The system will include an artificially created advisory
glide path from the final approach fix to the touchdown point, which
may aid the pilot in flying a constant descent to the MDA.

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 2) LNAV+V is not the same as LNAVNNAV or LPV. Pilots must use the
barometric altimeter as the primary altitude reference to meet all
altitude restrictions.

e. Baro-VNAV is an RNAV system function that uses barometric altitude

information from the aircraft's altimeter to compute and present a
vertical guidance path to the pilot.

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5. Disadvantages of using an autopilot include

a. Failing to maintain manual flying skills. Because all equipment will fail at
some time, a pilot needs to remain proficient in the skills required for
manual flying.

b. Turbulence. Some autopilot systems will disengage or default to certain

settings during moderate or severe turbulence.

c. Malfunction. A pilot should immediately disengage an autopilot system if

an unexpected or uncommanded behavior.

6. A good practice to clarify whether the autopilot is controlling the aircraft is to

audibly announce that the autopilot is engaged, similar to the positive
exchange of flight controls when flying with two pilots.

For illustrations used in the navigation questions click a link below.

You can also refer to your Gleim FAA written Test Guide.

FAA PHAK Advanced avionics handbook

Link to nav practice instruments Link to (FAA-CT-8080-3F). End of 3

Link to Chapter 4
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 RMI
 Radio magnetic indicator
 Dual use of VOR and ADF
 Two indicators on one instrument
 Always points to the station
 Use for DME arcs
 Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)

A F

B E

C D
Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc. 1998 All Rights Reserved
Guided Flight Discovery Instrument/Commercial Manual
Instrument Pilot - Principles of
03/23/2023 Instrument Flight - Chapter 2C 66
 Radio magnetic Indicator (Optional material)
1. The radio magnetic indicator (RMI) consists of a rotating compass card and
one or more navigation indicators, which point to stations.

2. The knobs at the bottom of the RMI allow you to select ADF or VOR
stations.

3. The magnetic heading of the airplane is always directly under the index at
the top of the instrument.

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4. The bearing pointer displays magnetic bearings to selected navigation
stations.

a. The tail of the indicator tells you which radial you are on or the magnetic
bearing FROM the station.

FAA PHAK

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5. DME arcs with the RMI. The RMI needle should point to the right wingtip on
right-hand arcs and the left wingtip on left-hand arcs. This assumes a no
wind situation.

a. Crosswind from the inside of the arc (e.g., left crosswind on a left-hand
arc)--requires you to turn toward the NAVAID to compensate for the
crosswind, putting the RMI needle in front of the wingtip reference.

b. Crosswind from the outside of the arc--requires you to turn to the outside
of the arc, putting the RMI needle behind the wingtip reference.

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 ADF
 Still can get there from here
 Use it to pick up the news and scores
 Use with marker beacons
 LOM
 Even some approaches still use them
 GLEIM REFERENCE
 INSTRUMENT FAA TEST PREP
 Study unit THREE PAGE 75-108

 INSTRUMENT PILOT FLIGHT MANEUVERS

 STUDY UNIT FOURTEEN PAGES 273-296