TRANSMISSION LINE

PROTECTION

K. VIJAYA BHASKAR REDDY. M.tech

Construction wing
APTRANSCO
[email protected]
(Mobile:7382296869)
What's down the road today?
 WHY TO PROTECT ?
 FAULTS
- CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF FAULTS
- TYPES OF FAULTS
 RELAYS
 CLASSIFICAION RELAYS
 TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION
 OVER CURRENT PROTECTION
 DISTANCE RELAY
- TYPES
- IMPEDANCE
- REACTANCE
- MHO
 COMPONENTS/FUNCTIONS OF DISTANCE RELAYS
 AR
 ADITIONAL FEATURES OF DISTANCE RELAYS
 FACTORS EFFECTING DISTANCE RELAY OPERATION
 LINE DIFFERENTIAL
 QUESTIONS
 PROTECTION – WHY IS IT REQUIRED?
ALL COMPONENTS OF POWER SYSTEMS MAY EXPERIENCE
FAULTS AT SOME TIME

* PROTECTION IS INSTALLED TO

- DETECT FAULT OCCURRENCE AND ISOLATE

FAULTED EQUIPMENT FROM HEALTHY ONES

* SO THAT

- DAMAGE TO THE EQUIPMENT IS LIMITED

- DISRUPTION OF SUPPLIES TO OTHER ADJACENT EQUIPMENT IS
UN-FAULTED IS MINIMIZED
 EFFECTS OF FAULTS
 Severe damage to the faulted equipment
- Excessive current may flow
- Causes burning of conductors or equipment windings
- Arcing -energy dissipation
- Risk of explosions for oil -filled switchgear, or when in
hazardous environments

 Damage to adjacent plant

- As the fault evolves, if not cleared quickly
- Due to the voltage depression / loss of supply
 Danger to staff or the public
- Risk of shock from direct contact with the faulted
equipment
- Danger of potential (voltage) rises in exposed metalwork
accessible to touch
- Fumes released by burning insulation
- Burns etc
 CAUSES OF FAULTS

 Lightning
 Wind
 Ice and Snow storm
 Flying objects
 Contamination of insulators
 Physical contact by animals
 Human errors
 Falling trees
 Insulation ageing
 STATISTICS
Transmission lines 85%

Bus bar 12%

Transformer/ Generator 3%

Single phase to earth 80%

Two phases to earth 10%

Phase to phase faults 5%

Three phase faults 5%

TYPES OF FAULTS

1.Transient
2.Persistent

1.Symmetrical
2.Un-symmetrical

1.Shunt
2. Series
 FAULTS
Transient faults
“are common on transmission lines. They will disappear after a short
“dead interval” and self distinguish. Lightning is the most common
reason for transient faults. The by lightning induced over voltages will
cause flash-over in an insulator chain. The fault must be cleared to
clear the arc. After a short interval, to allow deionisation, the voltage
can be restored without causing a new fault. Approximately 80-85%
of faults at HV lines are transient.”

Persistent Faults

“can be caused by a broken conductor, a falling tree, a mechanically

damaged insulator etc. These faults must be localized and the
damage repaired before the normal service can be re-established”.
 TYPES OF FAULTS
 SHUNT L1
L2

 SERIES

L1

L2
I
L3
I
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

 What are symmetrical components?

 Can we visualize symmetrical components practically ?

 If so how?
WHAT ARE SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS?
 According to C.L. Fortescue, “an unbalanced set of n phasors
may be resolved into n-1 balanced n-phase systems and one
zero phase sequence systems”.
 For a 3-phase system V a 1 1 1 V ao
Vb = 1 a2 a V a1
Vc 1 a a2 V a2
System Arbitrary Arbitrary
phasors coefficient's phasors

 Va1 is called as positive sequence component.

 Va2 is called as negative sequence component.
 Vao is called as zero sequence component.
Symmetrical System: Non-Symmetrical System:
->Counter-clockwise rotation ->Fault or unbalanced condition
->All current vectors have equal amplitude ->If one or more of the
->All voltage phase vectors have equal symmetrical
amplitude system conditions is not met.
9 units
->All current and 3voltage
units vectors have 120°
100° 120°
phase shifts 120°
4 units
and a sum is 0° 140°
3 units
3 units 3 units

Positive Sequence Zero sequence B

Negative Sequence
120°
C A 120° A
(Always present)
120°
120°
A B
120°
C
120°
C
B

-> No rotation sequence

-> A-B-C Counter-clockwise -> All phasors with equal -> A-C-B counter-
phase rotation magnitude clockwise phase rotation
-> All phasors with equal -> All phasors are in -> All phasors with equal
magnitude phase magnitude
-> All phasors displaced -> All phasors displaced
 U1L1

U1 1 a a2 UL1 U1L3 U1L2

= 1 UL2
U2 1 a2 a Positive Sequence U1=1 ( UL1 + aUL2 + a2UL3)
U0 1 1 1 UL3 3
UL1
3 U2L1

UL3
UL2 U2L3 U2L2

Negative Sequence U2=1 ( UL1 + a2UL2 + aUL3)

3
UL1 1 1 1 U1
UL2 = a2 a 1 U2
UL3 a a2 1 U0

U0L1
Zero Sequence U0=1 ( UL1 + UL2 + UL3)
3
*Under a no-fault condition, the power system is
considered to be essentially symmetrical
therefore, only positive sequence currents and
voltages exist.

*Involvement of ground will have zero sequence.

*Unbalance in the system will have negative
sequence .
 VISUALIZATION IN PRACTICAL

phase to phase fault

Z1

fa u lt im p e d a nc e = 2 Z 1 fa u lt

Z1

16
 phase to ground fault

Z o = Z 1 + Zg

Z1

Zg

In a book titled ‘Direct Current transmission’ by E.W.Kimbark it is mentioned that

--” Alternating Current,
return path closely follows the metallic conductor”
--“ Whereas in HVDC it takes the shortest impedance path in ground”
For a transmission line
Z1=Z2
Zo=(3 to 4.5)Z1 depending on soil resistivity

For Eg. For 132KV +ve Seq SC = 0.15+j0.41 for DC = 0.08+j0.22

0Seq for SC = 0.37+j1.29 for DC = 0.29+j1.04
132 Kv SIVARAMAPALLY-ASIFNAGAR

Ground wire
Length Conductor
Config Type No.str/Dia
In KM No.str/Dia

Sec 1 8.9 61/3.180 7/ 3.66

45 SD
Sec 2 2.9 630 Sqmm XLPE Cable

Length
R+ X+ YC/2 RO XO
In KM
Sec 1 8.9 0.68 3.34 13.63 2.36 12.39
Sec 2 2.9 0.11 0.56 0.21 4.75

Line length :- 8.90 + 2.9

+ve sequence :- 0.79 +j 3.90
Zero sequence :- 2.57 +j 17.14
 ZERO-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES FOR AN SC CABLE
WITH THREE DIFFERENT GROUND RETURN PATHS

Sequence Impedance of 132KV XLPE cable

+Ve & -Ve Sequence 0.0385 +j 0.191 Ohms
Zero Sequence 0.1101+ j 0.0791 Ohms

Ground Return Current Path Z0 in Ω

Sheath only 0.174 + j 0.073
Ground only 0.195 + j 2.166
Ground and sheath in parallel 0.172 + j 0.084
 FLOW OF
CURRENT FOR A INSULATOR
FAULT FLASHOVER

20
 INPUTS TO DISTANCE RELAYS
Distance Element Voltage Signal Current Signal
Phase A Va Ia + Ko3Io
Phase B Vb Ib + Ko3Io
Phase C Vc Ic + Ko3Io
Phase A – Phase B Va – Vb Ia – Ib
Phase B – Phase C Vb – Vc Ib – Ic
Phase C – Phase A Vc - Va Ic – Ia

Ko = ZLo – ZL1
3ZL1
 ZONES OF PROTECTION

LV Bus bar
Switchgear protection Bus bar
Protection protection
Generator
Protection
3
3 3
3 3
3

3
33
33
3

Circuit Power
Breaker Transmission
Transformer Line Protection
Protection
22
 LINE PROTECTION ZONE

ZONE OF
52
PROTECTION

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION ZONE

ZONE OF

52
52

PROTECTION
 DEAD ZONE
ZONE A CT OF ZONE B CT OF ZONE A ZONE B
52

ZONE A CT OF ZONE B CT OF ZONE A

52
ZONE B

ZONE A CT OF ZONE B CT OF ZONE A ZONE B

52

UNPROTECTED ZONE/BLIND ZONE

RELAYS

 WHAT EXACTLY IS RELAY ?

 WHAT ARE ITS FUNCTIONS ?
 WHAT INPUTS ARE REQUIRED ?
 IF ANY AUXILLARY SUPPLY IS
REQUIRED ?
 BASIC OBJECTIVES OF PROTECTION
 C O M M UNI C A TI O NS PO R T

CT

I NPUTS R EL A Y O UTPUT

PT

A U X IL L A R Y
S UPPL Y
 B US

PO TENTI A L
TR A NS FO R M ER
TR I PS
C I R C UI T
B R EA K ER
CO IL B A TTER Y
OR DC

NO

C UR R ENT
R EL A Y
TR A NS FO R M ER
 TYPICAL COMPONENTS OF PROTECTION

CTs CB

Protected
Control Equipment

Relay

VTs
A Protective Relay
“is a relay which responds to abnormal conditions
in an electrical power system, to control a circuit breaker
so as to isolate the faulty section of the system, with the
minimum interruption to service”

Relays can be classified as

* Measuring Relays
* All-or-nothing Relays
 OBJECTIVES:

 RELIABILITY assurance that the protection will perform

correctly
 SELECTIVITY maximum continuity of service with minimum
system disconnection
 SPEED OF OPERATION minimum fault duration
 SIMPLICITY
 ECONOMICS maximum protection at minimum cost
 CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS BASED ON
FUNCTIONALITY
 Current relays  Voltage relays

R EL A Y O UTPUT R EL A Y O UTPUT

A U XILL A R Y
PT
S UP PLY
A U XIL L A R Y
S U P P LY

E.g.:
Over current, earth fault, E.g.:
Unbalance current, differential etc Over/under voltage, overflux etc
 DISTANCE RELAYS

CT

I NPUTS R EL A Y O UTPUT

PT

A U XIL L A R Y
S U P P LY

Where Z = V/I is calculated

 HOW TO SELECT PROTECTION
SCHEME FOR TRANSMISSION LINES
Technical.
 Length of line.
 Voltage level.

Economics.
 Cost
APRANSCO PHILOSOPHY FOR PROTECTION OF
TRANSMISSION LINES
 Over current Relays and Earth fault Relays.
 Directional Over current Relays and Earth fault Relays.
 Distance relays.
 Line Differential relays.
 33KV Lines

• 3 O/C and 1 E/F. 3 O /C A N D E /F E L E M E N T S

• 2 O/C and 1 E/F. P1 P2 VE C TO R SUM O F

S2 S1 (I R + I Y + I B ) = 0
O /C
E/F

2 O /C A N D E /F E L E M E N T S

P1 P2 VE C T O R SUM O F

S2 S1 (I R + I Y + I B ) = 0
O /C

E/F
PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES USING OVER
CURENT RELAYS

 Time graded system

 Current graded system

 Time and current graded system

 Time graded system
X 52 X 52 X 52

R1 R2 R3
T
F
I
A
M
U
E
L
(S)
T
C
U
R
R 1.5
E
1.0
N
T 0.5
38
CURRENT GRADED SYSTEM

I=30A I=20A
A B C

F1 F2

39
 TIME & CURRENT GRADED SYSTEM(IDMT)

X 52 X 52 X 52

R1 R2 R3
INCREASING 40
DISTANCE INCREASING
FROM SOURCE FAULT CURRENT
Relay Characteristic Equation (IEC 60255)

Standard Inverse (SI) t= TMS x 0.14

Ir0.02-1
Very Inverse (VI) t = TMS x 13.5
Ir-1

x
Extremely Inverse (EI) t = TMS 80
Ir2-1
x
Long time standard earth fault t = TMS 120
Ir-1

41
42
43
44
DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAYS
AND EARTH FAULT RELAYS

A B
3

3
F1 = non directional
C D
3

3
over current relays
DIRECTIONAL RELAYS CONNECTIONS
Phase elements for 45deg
Relay phase Applied current Applied voltage
R Ir V y-b
Y Iy V b-r
B Ib V r-y

R phase element
Ia
Zone of operation
R
Vc
Va

45 deg
Vbc
V yb

B Y
Vb Non- operation
Vc
Earth fault Relays
Current input= Io
Voltage Input= Vo
 O/C RELAY OPERATING ANGLES
WITH MTA/RCA
MTA +45 de g
R pha s e 225 to 45
Y pha s e 105 to 285
B pha s e 345 to 165

O/C RELAY OPERATING ANGLES

WITH MTA/RCA
MTA -45 de g
R pha s e 45 to 225
Y pha s e 285 to 105
B pha s e 165 to 345
 DISTANCE ROTECTION IS A UNIVERSAL
SHORT CIRCUIT PROTECTION

ITS MODE OF OPERATION IS BASED ON THE

MEASUREMNET AND EVALUATION OF THE
SHORT CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE, WHERE IT IS
PROPOTIONAL TO THE DISTANCE TO THE FAULT
 DISTANCE RELAYS
 132KV Lines
Distance Relays- Primary protection
Directional Relays- Back up
 220KV Lines and 400KV Lines
Main-1 Distance relay(BUS PT FOR 220KV)
Main-2 Distance relay(LINE CVT FOR 220KV)
(FOR 400KV BOTH M1 AND M2 FROM LINE CVT)
 Short Lines
Line Differential
* if 132KV and 220KV line Length< 3KM (10KM*)
* 400KV line length < 10KM (50KM*)
* Now under consideration
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DISTANCE RELAY
At the respective BUS the fall or
V drop of voltage depends on
source fault levels
100% V
Vsc = x% of V

Isc
source 52

F1

At Fault location voltage

almost zero and depends on
Type & Nature of Fault
55
Impedance Ratio = PT Ratio/CT Ratio
132KV system Impedance ratio=(132KV/110V)/(600/1A)=2.0
220KV system Impedance ratio=(220KV/110V)/(800/1A)=2.5

CT Ratio=600/1A PT ratio = 132KV/110V

Then say Zp Calculated is 10Ohms then what is
Z secondary

56
 Input Quantities for
Phase to Phase faults

Input Quantities for

Phase to ground faults

57
Now Input for A Phase = Ia(1+Kn)

ZN Z Loop = Z1 + ZN
Z1
Z Loop = Z1 (1+Kn)
Z Loop
Kn = Z0-Z1
3Z1

58
 Distance relay

Impedance Reactance Mho

relay relay relay
 UNIVERSAL TORQUE EQUATION

T =K1I2 + K2V2 + K3VI cos(θ-φ) + K4

WHERE
CURRENT PRODUCES +ve TORQUE(OPERATING)
VOLTAGE PRODUCES -ve TORQUE(RESTRAINING)

NOW LET US understand BASIC DISTANCE RELAYS

 IMPEDANCE RELAY

T =K1I2 + K2V2 – K3
Zr X
V ( I-V )

BLO CK
Z
S

( I+ V ) TR I P
θ
INDUCTION CUP RELAY
I
R

Optd CHARACHTERSTICS IN
R-X PLANE
 REACTANCE RELAY
T =K1I2 + K2VI COS(90-Θ) + K3

X
BLO CK
Xr

TR I P

Optd CHARACHTERSTICS IN
R-X PLANE
 MHO RELAY

T = K1VI COS(Θ-Φ) - K2V2 – K3

BLO CK
TR I P

Optd CHARACHTERSTICS IN
R-X PLANE
OTHER RELAYS CHARACHTERSTICS

64
 Electrical equivalent circuit of fault
Vsc resistive
Vsc reactive Vsc

Isc resistive φ
Isc reactive
Isc

Rsc Xsc

Isc
Vsc
V
R-X Diagram

φsc for cables will be <20deg

φsc for over head lines will be >80deg
Load angle is around ±30deg
Phase to phase faults
 WHY ZONE-1 OF RELAY TO BE SET AS 80% ?

ASSUME ERROR IN

 CT = 2.5%
 PT = 2.5%
 RELAY = 2.5%
 COMPUTATION OF Z1 AND Z0 = 5%
 TOTAL=12.5%

A Z1=80% B C

F1 F2
S. No PRACTICALCONDITIONS
ZONAL SETTINGS TIME SETTINGS

1. Case (I) : If ZL/ZAS>2.5 ZONE 1 = 0.8* ZPL T1=0.0

ZONE 2 = 1.2 * ZPL T2=0.3+T2 SHORT LINE
ZONE 3= 1.5*ZPL T3=T2+0.3
ZONE 4 = ZL+1.2*ZLL T4=T3+0.3

2. Case (II) : if ZL/ZAS<=2.5 ZONE 1= 0.8 * ZPL T1=0.0

ZONE 2= ZL+0.5 * ZAS T3=0.3
ZONE 3 = ZL +1.2*ZAS T3=0.6
ZONE 4= ZL+1.2 * ZLL T4=0.9

THE LINE ENDING WITH ZONE 1=1.1 * ZL T1=0.0

3. TRANSFORMER ZONE 2=1.5 * ZL T2=0.3
ZONE 3=1.8 * ZL T3=0.6
ZONE 4=1.2 (TRANSFORMER T4=0.3+TRIPPING TIME OF
IMPEDENCE+100% TRANSFORMER

(WITH THE LINE)

70
STATION:-ANANTAPUR FEEDER NAME:-220 KV KALYANDURG

C.T.RATIO:-800/1 A P.T.RATIO:-220000/110 V

LINE DATA:-R1:- 3.99 X1:- 25.69 R0[0]:- 16.15 X0[0]:- 87.32

ADJACENT FEEDERS DATA:

KLY-BRP KLY-ATP
R1 0.95 3.99
X1 6.1 25.69
T2 0.3 0.3
T3 0.6 0.6
RO 3.83 16.15
XO 20.73 87.32
PRIMARY ZONAL REACHES TIME SETTINGS
DS1 = 20.55(0.80ZPL) Z1T = 0.0
DS2 = 30.83(1.2ZPL) Z2T = 0.6
DS3 = 38.53(1.5ZPL) Z3T = 0.9
DS4 = 56.52(ZL+ZLL) Z4T = 1.2
STATION:- BORAMPALLI
FEEDER NAME:- 220 V KALYANDURG
C.T.RATIO:-800/1 A P.T.RATIO:-220000/110 V

LINE DATA:-R1:- 0.95 X1:- 6.10 R0:- 3.83 X0:- 20.73

Line Length : 15.5

ADJACENT FEEDERS DATA:
Zonal
KLY-BRMPL KLYN-ATP reaches
R1 0.95 3.99
X1 6.1 25.69
T2 0.3 0.3
T3 0.6 0.6
Primary Reactive Reaches and Zonal Time setting of the Relay
Zone1= 4.9(0.80ZL) 0.0
Zone2= 9.15(ZL+0.5ZSAL) 0.3
Zone3= 13.6(ZL+1.2ZSAL) 0.6
Zone4= 37.4(ZL+1.2ZLL) 0.9
Distance schemes consist of the following
major components:-

i) Starters.
ii) Measuring units.
iii) Timers
iv) Auxiliary relays
i)Starters: -
The starting relay (or starter) initiates the distance scheme in the
event of a fault within the required reach (more than zone-3).
 
Other functions of the starter are: -

a) Starting of timer relays for second and third zones.

b) Starting of measuring elements.

 
The starters are generally of Mho or impedance type.
 
 Measuring units: -

They are generally of a mho or reactance or a combination of mho,

reactance and resistance types.

Phase Fault Units:-

These measuring units are fed with line to line voltages (such as Vab,
Vbc) and difference between line currents (Ia-Ib). They measure the
positive sequence impedance from the relay location to the fault point.
Three such relays respond correctly to all possible single line to ground
faults line to line faults, double line to ground faults and 3-phase faults.
They however do not respond correctly to earth faults.
 Earth Fault Units: -

These measuring units utilize line to neutral voltage (Van, Vbn

Vcn) and phase currents (Ia, Ib, Ic). In order to make these units
measure the positive sequence impedance correctly, a zero
sequence current compensation is to be provided which is
obtained by:
KN = (Z0-Z1)/ 3*Z1
(where Z1 = positive sequence impedance of line.
Z0 = Zero sequence impedance of line)
In the current circuit (1+KN) Ia will be fed for the above
measurement
 Timers: -

Timer relays when initiated by starters provide the time lag

required for zones. They also will be used for zone
extension purpose whenever required.

Auxiliary relays: -
Distance scheme comprises of several auxiliary relays,
which perform functions such as flag indications, trippings,
signaling, alarm etc.
Additional Features in distance schemes

Power Swing blocking relay

VT fuse failure relay.
Switch onto fault relay
Fault locator
Carrier communication scheme.
Auto-reclosing scheme.
POWER SWING BLOCKING
Power swing is 3Phase phenomena
so purely +ve sequence presents
What happens if fault comes during PSB?
Power swing is 3ph phenomena and dZ/dT is slow
In case of fault
1. dZ/dT is fast
2. –ve and 0 sequence are present
3. which will be utilised in algorithm's
 VT fuse failure relay: -

The distance relays being voltage restraint O/C relays, loss of voltage
due to main PT fuse failure or inadvertent removal of fuse in one or
more phases will cause the relay operation.
The fuse failure relay will sense such condition by the presence of
residual voltage without residual current and blocks the relay.

Vo(V2)
Distance
AND relay Block
Io(I2)

VT fail alarm
 WHAT HAPPENS IF FAULT OCCURS
DURING VT FAIL?

VT fail
Set
time TRIP
AND delay

I> set value

or
Io>set value
 Switch onto fault:
When energising a power line onto a forgotten earthing no measuring
voltage will be available and the directional measuring can thus not
operate correctly.

A special SOTF function is thus provided. Different principles can be

used, from one phase current to undirectional impedance measuring.

SOTF condition can be either be taken from the manual closing signal
activation the(BC) input or it can be detected internally by logic.

Z<
U=0V

This SOTF feature will be effective only for about 1-2 seconds after the line
is charged. Faults occurring after this time will be measured in the normal
way.
 Fault locator: -

It measures the distance between the relay location and fault

location in terms of Z in Ohms, or length in KM or percentage
of line length.
This relay gets same inputs as the distance relay (connected in
series with one of the main relays). The measurement is
initiated by trip signal from distance relays.
The fault locator gives the exact location of the fault, thereby
reducing the time of restoration.
 CARRIER COMMUNICATION SCHEME

 20% of protected Line will take Zone-2 time.

 Carrier will eliminate it.
 Direct Tripping.
 Permissive Under reach transfer Tripping(PUTT).
 Permissive Over reach transfer Tripping(POTT)
Z1
PUTT

Z2
T
Z2
delay R
trip

Z2
I
P
Send Logic : Z1
AN Trip Logic : Rx + Z2
D
CR Tx Tx
0 Rx Rx 0
100 100

CS
& &

Carrier send will be Z1 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1

activated if fault is in Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2

Zone-1
Z3 T3 T3 Z3
Z1

T POTT
Used for Short lines and for high

Z2
Z2
delay R
trip
Resistance faults

Z2
I
AN
D
P
CR Send Logic : Z2
Trip Logic : Rx + Z2

CS
Rx Rx
Tx Tx

& &
Carrier send will be
activated if fault is Z1 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1

in Zone-2 Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2

Z3 T3 T3 Z3
 AUTO RECLOSING SCHEME
 Continuity of supply
 Maintenance of system stability and synchronism
MINIMUM DEAD TIME (IEEE)

System Voltage Minimum deionization time [ms]

kV Based on Field and Based on Operating
Laboratory Tests Experience
23 110 180
46 120 200
69 130 210
115 150 230
132 160 240
230 210 280
345 260 340
400 280 370
500 330 420

System Voltage Critical Line Length [miles]

kV Successful Range Doubtful Range
230 0-300 300-500
345 0-140 140-260
500 0-60 60-100
765 0-50 50-80
 HOW TO IMPLEMENT AR ?
 AR can be implemented in either BCU or Main-1 or Main-2.
 Conditions for AR

1. Main-1 & Main-2 1Phase tripping

2. CB healthy.
3. Carrier Healthy.
Conditions for Lock out
Phase faults.
CB or Carrier unhealthy.
faults of SOTF, Z3, Z4 orZr
Factors affecting distance relay operation:-

Fault resistance.

Infeed effect.

Branching-off effect.

Load encroachment.
Fault resistance:-

 Fault resistance has two components:-

a) Arc resistance.
b) Ground resistance.
arc = 8750 x L / I 1.4
Where L = length of arc in ft
I = fault current in Amps

X
Rf
X
Zl
Zr

Θ= line angle

R
 Voltage Average distance of Arc resistance
Level ph-conductors At Isc=1000A At Isc=10.00A
380KV 11m 27.5 Ω 2.75 Ω
220KV 7m 17.5 Ω 1.75 Ω
110KV 3.5m 7.5 Ω 0.75 Ω
20KV <1m <2.5 Ω <0.25 Ω

Protected cable/line R-X ratio of zone setting

Short cables (ca. 0.5 to 3Km) 3 to 5
Longer cables >3Km 2 to 3
Short overhead lines <10Km 2 to 5
Overhead lines < 100Km 1 to 2
Long overhead lines 100 to 200 Km 0.5 bis 1
Long EHV lines > 200Km <=0.5
PHASE TO EARTH FAULTS PHASE TO PHASE FAULTS
132KV 20 ohms 132KV 12 ohms ON
220KV 30 ohms 220KV 12 ohms PRIMARY SIDE
400KV 40 ohms 400KV 20 ohms
Rph-e < 4.5X1 Rph-ph < 3X1
Infeed effect:-
The effect of intermediate current source between relay location and
fault point is termed as infeed effect.
A fault at F on the line BC is at a distance of Z1+Z2 for the relay at
station A. But when current I2 flows from bus D, the impedance to
the fault as seen by the relay at A is
Z1 + Z2 + Z2 x (I2/I1).
 Branching-off effect: -
A fault at F is at the distance of Z1+Z2 for the relay at station A. But when
current I1 gets distributed as I2 & I3 at station B, the impedance to fault seen
by the relay at station A will be (Z1 + I3/I1 * Z2) which is less than (Z1+Z2).
LOAD ENCROACHMENT

Let Load on 132KV line is 100MW

CT Ration is 600/1A
PT Ratio is 132KV/110

I=100MW/(1.732*132KV) = 437A

CT Secondary is = 437/600=0.728A

Z sec = 110/(1.732*0.728) = 87ohms

 LINE DIFFERENTIAL
 Used for very short lines.
 Need of communication is must.
 Same make and type relays at both ends TO BE USED.
 CT CT

BUS PT Rx BUS PT
Rx

Tx Tx
OPGW cable

Mono or Multi

Relays shall be of
same make and
type
R1 R2
R1 R2

R3
 For Faults with in Protected Line differential protection
operates.
 For fault's outside zone conventional distance relay acts.
 For faults within zone distance zone-1 gets blocked.
 In case of channel fail distance acts