Chapter 11

Inheritance and Polymorphism

1
 Motivations
Suppose you will define classes to model circles,
rectangles, and triangles. These classes have many
common features. What is the best way to design
these classes so to avoid redundancy? The answer
is to use inheritance.

2
 Objectives
• To define a subclass from a superclass through inheritance (§11.2).
• To invoke the superclass’s constructors and methods using the super keyword
(§11.3).
• To override instance methods in the subclass (§11.4).
• To distinguish differences between overriding and overloading (§11.5).
• To explore the toString() method in the Object class (§11.6).
• To discover polymorphism and dynamic binding (§§11.7–11.8).
• To describe casting and explain why explicit downcasting is necessary (§11.9).
• To explore the equals method in the Object class (§11.10).
• To store, retrieve, and manipulate objects in an ArrayList (§11.11).
• To implement a Stack class using ArrayList (§11.12).
• To enable data and methods in a superclass accessible from subclasses using the
protected visibility modifier (§11.13).
• To prevent class extending and method overriding using the final modifier
(§11.14).

3
Superclasses and Subclasses

GeometricObject

CircleFromSimpleGeometricObjec
t
RectangleFromSimpleGeometricObjec
t

TestCircleRectangl
e
Run
4
 Are superclass’s Constructor Inherited?
No. They are not inherited.
They are invoked explicitly or implicitly.
Explicitly using the super keyword.
A constructor is used to construct an instance of a class.
Unlike properties and methods, a superclass's
constructors are NOT inherited in the subclass. They
can only be invoked from the subclasses' constructors,
using the keyword super. If the keyword super is not
explicitly used, the superclass's no-arg constructor is
automatically invoked.
5
 Superclass’s Constructor Is Always Invoked
A constructor may invoke an overloaded constructor or its
superclass’s constructor. If none of them is invoked
explicitly, the compiler puts super() as the first statement
in the constructor. For example,

6
 Using the Keyword super
The keyword super refers to the superclass
of the class in which super appears. This
keyword can be used in two ways:
• To call a superclass constructor
• To call a superclass method

7
 CAUTION

You must use the keyword super to call the

superclass constructor. Invoking a
superclass constructor’s name in a subclass
causes a syntax error. Java requires that the
statement that uses the keyword super
appear first in the constructor.

8
 Constructor Chaining
Constructing an instance of a class invokes all the superclasses’ constructors
along the inheritance chain. This is known as constructor chaining.
public class Faculty extends Employee {
public static void main(String[] args) {
new Faculty();
}

public Faculty() {
System.out.println("(4) Faculty's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}
 
class Employee extends Person {
public Employee() {
this("(2) Invoke Employee’s overloaded constructor");
System.out.println("(3) Employee's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
 
public Employee(String s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
}
 
class Person {
public Person() {
System.out.println("(1) Person's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}

9
animation
Trace Execution
public class Faculty extends Employee {
public static void main(String[] args) {
new Faculty(); 1. Start from the
} main method
public Faculty() {
System.out.println("(4) Faculty's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}
 
class Employee extends Person {
public Employee() {
this("(2) Invoke Employee’s overloaded constructor");
System.out.println("(3) Employee's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
 
public Employee(String s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
}
 
class Person {
public Person() {
System.out.println("(1) Person's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}

10
animation
Trace Execution
public class Faculty extends Employee {
public static void main(String[] args) {
new Faculty(); 2. Invoke Faculty
} constructor
public Faculty() {
System.out.println("(4) Faculty's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}
 
class Employee extends Person {
public Employee() {
this("(2) Invoke Employee’s overloaded constructor");
System.out.println("(3) Employee's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
 
public Employee(String s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
}
 
class Person {
public Person() {
System.out.println("(1) Person's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}

11
animation
Trace Execution
public class Faculty extends Employee {
public static void main(String[] args) {
new Faculty();
}

public Faculty() {
System.out.println("(4) Faculty's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}
  3. Invoke Employee’s no-
class Employee extends Person { arg constructor
public Employee() {
this("(2) Invoke Employee’s overloaded constructor");
System.out.println("(3) Employee's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
 
public Employee(String s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
}
 
class Person {
public Person() {
System.out.println("(1) Person's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}

12
animation
Trace Execution
public class Faculty extends Employee {
public static void main(String[] args) {
new Faculty();
}

public Faculty() {
System.out.println("(4) Faculty's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}
 
class Employee extends Person { 4. Invoke Employee(String)
public Employee() { constructor
this("(2) Invoke Employee’s overloaded constructor");
System.out.println("(3) Employee's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
 
public Employee(String s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
}
 
class Person {
public Person() {
System.out.println("(1) Person's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}

13
animation
Trace Execution
public class Faculty extends Employee {
public static void main(String[] args) {
new Faculty();
}

public Faculty() {
System.out.println("(4) Faculty's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}
 
class Employee extends Person {
public Employee() {
this("(2) Invoke Employee’s overloaded constructor");
System.out.println("(3) Employee's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
 
public Employee(String s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
}
 
class Person {
5. Invoke Person()
public Person() { constructor
System.out.println("(1) Person's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}

14
animation
Trace Execution
public class Faculty extends Employee {
public static void main(String[] args) {
new Faculty();
}

public Faculty() {
System.out.println("(4) Faculty's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}
 
class Employee extends Person {
public Employee() {
this("(2) Invoke Employee’s overloaded constructor");
System.out.println("(3) Employee's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
 
public Employee(String s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
}
 
class Person {
public Person() { 6. Execute println
System.out.println("(1) Person's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}

15
animation
Trace Execution
public class Faculty extends Employee {
public static void main(String[] args) {
new Faculty();
}

public Faculty() {
System.out.println("(4) Faculty's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}
 
class Employee extends Person {
public Employee() {
this("(2) Invoke Employee’s overloaded constructor");
System.out.println("(3) Employee's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
 
public Employee(String s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
}
 
class Person {
public Person() { 7. Execute println
System.out.println("(1) Person's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}

16
animation
Trace Execution
public class Faculty extends Employee {
public static void main(String[] args) {
new Faculty();
}

public Faculty() {
System.out.println("(4) Faculty's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}
 
class Employee extends Person {
public Employee() {
this("(2) Invoke Employee’s overloaded constructor");
System.out.println("(3) Employee's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
 
public Employee(String s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
}
 
class Person {
public Person() { 8. Execute println
System.out.println("(1) Person's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}

17
animation
Trace Execution
public class Faculty extends Employee {
public static void main(String[] args) {
new Faculty();
}

public Faculty() {
System.out.println("(4) Faculty's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}
 
class Employee extends Person { 9. Execute println
public Employee() {
this("(2) Invoke Employee’s overloaded constructor");
System.out.println("(3) Employee's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
 
public Employee(String s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
}
 
class Person {
public Person() {
System.out.println("(1) Person's no-arg constructor is invoked");
}
}

18
 Example on the Impact of a Superclass without no-arg
Constructor

Find out the errors in the program:

public class Apple extends Fruit {
}
 
class Fruit {
public Fruit(String name) {
System.out.println("Fruit's constructor is invoked");
}
}

19
 Defining a Subclass
A subclass inherits from a superclass. You can also:
● Add new properties
● Add new methods
● Override the methods of the superclass

20
 Calling Superclass Methods
You could rewrite the printCircle() method in the Circle class as
follows:

public void printCircle() {

System.out.println("The circle is created " +
super.getDateCreated() + " and the radius is " + radius);
}

21
 Overriding Methods in the Superclass
A subclass inherits methods from a superclass. Sometimes it is
necessary for the subclass to modify the implementation of a method
defined in the superclass. This is referred to as method overriding.

public class Circle extends GeometricObject {

// Other methods are omitted

/** Override the toString method defined in GeometricObject */

public String toString() {
return super.toString() + "\nradius is " + radius;
}
}

22
 NOTE

An instance method can be overridden only

if it is accessible. Thus a private method
cannot be overridden, because it is not
accessible outside its own class. If a method
defined in a subclass is private in its
superclass, the two methods are completely
unrelated.

23
 NOTE

Like an instance method, a static method

can be inherited. However, a static method
cannot be overridden. If a static method
defined in the superclass is redefined in a
subclass, the method defined in the
superclass is hidden.

24
Overriding vs. Overloading

25
 The Object Class and Its Methods
Every class in Java is descended from the
java.lang.Object class. If no inheritance is
specified when a class is defined, the
superclass of the class is Object.

26
 The toString() method in Object
The toString() method returns a string representation of the
object. The default implementation returns a string consisting
of a class name of which the object is an instance, the at sign
(@), and a number representing this object.

Loan loan = new Loan();

System.out.println(loan.toString());

The code displays something like Loan@15037e5 . This

message is not very helpful or informative. Usually you should
override the toString method so that it returns a digestible string
representation of the object.

27
 Polymorphism
Polymorphism means that a variable of a
supertype can refer to a subtype object.

A class defines a type. A type defined by a

subclass is called a subtype, and a type defined by
its superclass is called a supertype. Therefore, you
can say that Circle is a subtype of
GeometricObject and GeometricObject is a
supertype for Circle.
PolymorphismDemo
Run
28
 Polymorphism, Dynamic Binding and Generic Programming
public class PolymorphismDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
m(new GraduateStudent()); Method m takes a parameter
m(new Student());
m(new Person()); of the Object type. You can
}
m(new Object());
invoke it with any object.
 
public static void m(Object x) {
System.out.println(x.toString()); An object of a subtype can be used wherever its
}
}
supertype value is required. This feature is
 
class GraduateStudent extends Student { known as polymorphism.
}
 
class Student extends Person {
public String toString() {
return "Student";
When the method m(Object x) is executed,
}
} the argument x’s toString method is invoked. x
  may be an instance of GraduateStudent,
class Person extends Object {
public String toString() { Student, Person, or Object. Classes
}
return "Person";
GraduateStudent, Student, Person, and Object
} have their own implementation of the toString
Animatio method. Which implementation is used will be
n determined dynamically by the Java Virtual
DynamicBindingDe Machine at runtime. This capability is known
mo as dynamic binding.
Run
29
 Dynamic Binding

Dynamic binding works as follows: Suppose an object o is an

instance of classes C1, C2, ..., Cn-1, and Cn, where C1 is a subclass of
C2, C2 is a subclass of C3, ..., and Cn-1 is a subclass of Cn. That is, Cn is
the most general class, and C1 is the most specific class. In Java, Cn
is the Object class. If o invokes a method p, the JVM searches the
implementation for the method p in C1, C2, ..., Cn-1 and Cn, in this
order, until it is found. Once an implementation is found, the
search stops and the first-found implementation is invoked.

30
 Method Matching vs. Binding

Matching a method signature and binding a method

implementation are two issues. The compiler finds a
matching method according to parameter type, number
of parameters, and order of the parameters at
compilation time. A method may be implemented in
several subclasses. The Java Virtual Machine
dynamically binds the implementation of the method at
runtime.

31
 Generic Programming
public class PolymorphismDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Polymorphism allows methods to be used
m(new GraduateStudent());
m(new Student());
generically for a wide range of object
m(new Person()); arguments. This is known as generic
m(new Object());
} programming. If a method’s parameter
 
public static void m(Object x) { type is a superclass (e.g., Object), you may
System.out.println(x.toString());
} pass an object to this method of any of
}
 
the parameter’s subclasses (e.g., Student
class GraduateStudent extends Student {
}
or String). When an object (e.g., a Student
  object or a String object) is used in the
class Student extends Person {
public String toString() { method, the particular implementation of
return "Student";
} the method of the object that is invoked
}
  (e.g., toString) is determined dynamically.
class Person extends Object {
public String toString() {
return "Person";
}
}

32
 Casting Objects
You have already used the casting operator to convert variables of
one primitive type to another. Casting can also be used to convert an
object of one class type to another within an inheritance hierarchy.
In the preceding section, the statement
m(new Student());

assigns the object new Student() to a parameter of the Object type.

This statement is equivalent to:

Object o = new Student(); // Implicit casting

m(o);

The statement Object o = new Student(), known as

implicit casting, is legal because an instance of
Student is automatically an instance of Object.
33
 Why Casting Is Necessary?
Suppose you want to assign the object reference o to a variable of
the Student type using the following statement:

Student b = o;
 
A compile error would occur. Why does the statement Object o =
new Student() work and the statement Student b = o doesn’t? This is
because a Student object is always an instance of Object, but an
Object is not necessarily an instance of Student. Even though you can
see that o is really a Student object, the compiler is not so clever to
know it. To tell the compiler that o is a Student object, use an explicit
casting. The syntax is similar to the one used for casting among
primitive data types. Enclose the target object type in parentheses
and place it before the object to be cast, as follows:

Student b = (Student)o; // Explicit casting

34
 Casting from
Superclass to Subclass
Explicit casting must be used when casting an
object from a superclass to a subclass. This type
of casting may not always succeed.
Apple x = (Apple)fruit;

Orange x = (Orange)fruit;

35
 The instanceof Operator
Use the instanceof operator to test whether an object is an
instance of a class:

Object myObject = new Circle();

... // Some lines of code
/** Perform casting if myObject is an instance of
Circle */
if (myObject instanceof Circle) {
System.out.println("The circle diameter is " +
((Circle)myObject).getDiameter());
...
}

36
 TIP

To help understand casting, you may also

consider the analogy of fruit, apple, and
orange with the Fruit class as the superclass
for Apple and Orange. An apple is a fruit, so
you can always safely assign an instance of
Apple to a variable for Fruit. However, a fruit
is not necessarily an apple, so you have to
use explicit casting to assign an instance of
Fruit to a variable of Apple.

37
 Example: Demonstrating
Polymorphism and Casting
This example creates two geometric objects: a
circle, and a rectangle, invokes the
displayGeometricObject method to display the
objects. The displayGeometricObject displays
the area and diameter if the object is a circle,
and displays area if the object is a rectangle.

CastingDemo Run

38
 The equals Method
The equals() method compares the
contents of two objects. The default implementation of
the equals method in the Object class is as follows:
public boolean equals(Object obj) {
return this == obj;
}
For example, the
public boolean equals(Object o) {
if (o instanceof Circle) {
equals method is return radius == ((Circle)o).radius;
overridden in }
the Circle else
return false;
class. }

39
 NOTE
The == comparison operator is used for
comparing two primitive data type values or for
determining whether two objects have the same
references. The equals method is intended to
test whether two objects have the same
contents, provided that the method is modified
in the defining class of the objects. The ==
operator is stronger than the equals method, in
that the == operator checks whether the two
reference variables refer to the same object.
40
 The ArrayList Class
You can create an array to store objects. But the array’s size is fixed
once the array is created. Java provides the ArrayList class that can
be used to store an unlimited number of objects.

41
 Generic Type
ArrayList is known as a generic class with a generic
type E. You can specify a concrete type to replace E
when creating an ArrayList. For example, the
following statement creates an ArrayList and assigns
its reference to variable cities. This ArrayList object
can be used to store strings.
ArrayList<String> cities = new ArrayList<String>();

ArrayList<String> cities = new ArrayList<>();

TestArrayList Run
42
Differences and Similarities between Arrays and ArrayList

DistinctNumbers Run
43
 Array Lists from/to Arrays
Creating an ArrayList from an array of objects:
String[] array = {"red", "green", "blue"};
ArrayList<String> list = new
ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(array));

Creating an array of objects from an ArrayList:

String[] array1 = new String[list.size()];
list.toArray(array1);

44
 max and min in an Array List
String[] array = {"red", "green", "blue"};
System.out.pritnln(java.util.Collections.max(
new ArrayList<String>(Arrays.asList(array)));

String[] array = {"red", "green", "blue"};

System.out.pritnln(java.util.Collections.min(
new ArrayList<String>(Arrays.asList(array)));

45
 Shuffling an Array List
Integer[] array = {3, 5, 95, 4, 15, 34, 3, 6, 5};
ArrayList<Integer> list = new
ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(array));
java.util.Collections.shuffle(list);
System.out.println(list);

46
 The MyStack Classes
A stack to hold objects.

MyStack

47
 The protected Modifier
• The protected modifier can be applied on data
and methods in a class. A protected data or a
protected method in a public class can be accessed
by any class in the same package or its subclasses,
even if the subclasses are in a different package.
• private, default, protected, public

48
Accessibility Summary

49
Visibility Modifiers

50
A Subclass Cannot Weaken the Accessibility

A subclass may override a protected

method in its superclass and change its
visibility to public. However, a subclass
cannot weaken the accessibility of a
method defined in the superclass. For
example, if a method is defined as public
in the superclass, it must be defined as
public in the subclass.

51
 NOTE

The modifiers are used on classes and

class members (data and methods), except
that the final modifier can also be used on
local variables in a method. A final local
variable is a constant inside a method.

52
 The final Modifier
• The final class cannot be extended:
final class Math {
...
}

• The final variable is a constant:

final static double PI = 3.14159;

• The final method cannot be

overridden by its subclasses.

53