CHAPTER 1 :

STIMULUS AND RESPONSE

SCIENCE FORM 3
BY TEACHER HAYATI, SIGS JB
1.1 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The human nervous system is an important

control system in body coordination.
• Other than sight, thinking and body movement,
the human nervous system also controls and
coordinates organ functions in the body and
maintains a balanced internal environment
through a process.
STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN
NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Central Nervous
System
• Periferal Nervous
System
 • The human nervous system
controls and coordinates organs
FUNCTIONS and parts of the body by
OF THE • detects stimuli
HUMAN • sends information in the form
NERVOUS of impulses
SYSTEM • interprets impulses
• produces appropriate responses
 VOLUNTARY AND
INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS

• The responses of the human body

to stimuli can be divided into
voluntary actions and
involuntary actions.
 VOLUNTARY ACTIONS

• Voluntary actions are conscious actions

and conducted under one’s will.
• All voluntary actions are controlled by the
brain.
• Examples of voluntary actions include
reading, writing, speaking, eating, drinking,
walking, running and exercising.
VOLUNTARY ACTIONS
 • Involuntary actions are
actions that occur immediately
INVOLUNTARY without conscious control or
ACTIONS prior thoughts.
• Involuntary actions can be
classified into two.
 INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS

Involving medulla oblongata Involving spinal cord (reflex actions)

• Heartbeat • Withdrawing hand
• Breathing when it accidentally touches a hot
• Peristalsis object
• Secretion of saliva • Withdrawing foot when it accidentally
steps on a sharp object
• Sneezing when dust enters the nose
INVOLUNTARY
ACTIONS
INVOLVING
MEDULLA
OBLONGATA
INVOLUNTARY Size of the pupil
ACTIONS
INVOLVING
MEDULLA
OBLONGATA
INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS

INVOLVING SPINAL CORD

(REFLEX ACTIONS)
 IMPORTANCE OF THE NETWORK OF
HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM IN DAILY
LIFE
• The network of the human nervous system controls and
coordinates the organs and parts of the body to carry out processes
in the body such as breathing and body movements.
• A damaged nervous system normally causes a person
to become temporarily, partially or completely paralysed.
• For example, if the nerves in the muscles of a leg or hand are
injured, the person will face difficulty in moving his leg or hand.
In the case of a more serious problem, he might have to depend on
machines to carry out his physiological processes such as
breathing or heart beating. Humans are blessed with a nervous
system, so they should use and take good care of it.
1.2 STIMULI AND
RESPONSES IN HUMANS
STIMULI AND
RESPONSES IN HUMANS
• These changes are called stimuli.
• Examples of stimuli include light, sound and
chemical substances.
• Humans use their sensory organs to detect
stimuli.
• Humans have five sensory organs: eyes,
ears, nose, skin and tongue
EYES
 Sclera Choroid

Suspensory Retina
ligament
Cornea

Yellow spot

Pupil Blind spot

Aqueous
humour

Eye Lens
Optic nerve
Iris

Ciliary muscles
Vitreous humour

STRUCTURE OF HUMAN EYE

Eyelid

Pupil

Sclera

Iris

Front view of eye

Side view of eye
CORNEA
- Transparent layer at the front
of the eye
- Curved shape

FUNCTION
- Allow light to enter the eye
- refracts and focuses light
onto the retina
CONJUNCTIVA
- Thin transparent
membrane covering
the exposed part of
the eye
AQUEOUS HUMOUR
- Watery,
- transparent
fluid
- Fills the space
between cornea and
lens
 FUNCTION

- Helps focus images on the retina

- Helps maintain the shape of the

eyeball
PUPIL
- A small opening
in
the centre of the
iris
FUNCTION
• Enables light to enter
the eye
• Controls amount of
light entering the eye
IRIS
- Part of the choroid
layer which can be

seen from the front

of the eye as a disc-
shaped structure
- Consists of muscles
- Coloured, for
example, brown
green or blue
FUNCTION
•Controls the size of
the pupil thus controlling the
amount of light entering the
eye
CILIARY
MUSCLE
- Consists of the
ciliary muscle
- Part of the
choroid layer
FUNCTION

Contracts and
relaxes to
change the
thickness of the
lens
SUSPENSORY
LIGAMEN
Consists of fibres
attaching the lens to the
ciliary body
EYE LENS
Transparent and
elastic convex lens
which focuses light
onto the retina
Vitreous humour

Transparent jelly-like
substance which maintains the
shape of the eyeball and
focuses light onto the retina
SCLERA
Strong layer that maintains the shape of the eye and protects it
 CHOROID

Black layer that prevents

reflection of light in the eye and
supplies oxygen and nutrients
to the eye
 RETINA

Layer containing
photoreceptors which
detects light and produces
nerve impulses
YELLOW SPOT
Part of the retina which
is most sensitive to light
as it has many
photoreceptors
BLIND SPOT
Part of the retina which is
not sensitive to light as
there are no
photoreceptors and
an exit point for
all optic nerve fibres.
OPTIC NERVES
Nerve fibres which carry nerve impulses from the retina to
the brain to be interpreted.
 WHAT IS THE COLOUR OF THE
OBJECT SEEN?
• The retina has two types of photoreceptors: rod cells and
cone cells
• Rod cells are sensitive to different light intensities
including faint light but are not sensitive to the colours of
light.
• Cone cells are sensitive to the colours of light under bright
conditions.
• There are three different types of cone cells, with each is
sensitive to red light, green light and blue light.
Mechanism of Sight
EAR
 The Human
Ear
Outer Middle Inner

- Pinna - ossicles -Cochlea

- ear canal - semicircular
- oval window
(filled with canals
- Eustachian tube. - auditory nerve
air)
(filled with air)
- eardrum (contain fluid)
EARLOBE
Collects and
directs sound
waves into the
ear canal
EAR CANAL
Directs sound waves
to the eardrum
EARDRUM
(THIN MEMBRANE)
Vibrates according to the
frequency of the sound
waves received and
transfers the vibrations to
the ossicles
OSSICLES
(made up of three small
bones)

Amplify sound
vibrations and transfer
them to the
oval window
OVAL WINDOW
Collects and
transfers sound
vibrations from
the ossicles
to the cochlea
EUSTACHIAN
TUBE
Balances the air
pressure on both
sides of the
eardrum
 COCHLEA
(contains fluid)

Detects and converts

sound vibrations into
nerve impulses
SEMI CIRCULAR
CANALS (contains fluid)
Detect the position of
the head and help to
balance thebody
HEARING MECHANISM
NOSE
 • The nose is the sensory organ of
smell.
• Smells are chemical
STRUCTURE substances present in the air.
OF THE NOSE • About 10 million sensory
cells for smell are located at the
roof of the nasal cavity
FUNCTION OF SENSORY
CELLS OF SMELL
• Sensory cells for smell are tiny and
covered with a layer of mucous.
• Chemical substances in the
air will dissolve in this layer of mucous
and stimulate the cells to produce nerve
impulses.
• The nerve impulses are then sent to the
brain to be interpreted to determine the
type of smell.
 Chemicals in Brain interprets the
the air messages as a specific
smell

Air enters nasal Receptors

cavity through (olfactory nerve)
nostrils send messages to
the brain

Chemicals
dissolve in the Receptors
mucus layer stimulated by the
chemicals
The detection of Smell
TONGUE
STRUCTURE OF THE TONGUE
• The tongue is the sensory organ of taste.
• There are tiny nodules known as papillae on
the surface of the tongue.
• The surface of a papillae is covered by hundreds
of taste buds.
• Each taste bud contains 10 to 50 taste receptors.
• These taste receptors can detect five types of
basic tastes which are sweet, salty, sour, bitter
and umami
DIFFERENT AREAS OF THE TONGUE ARE
MORE SENSITIVE TO SPECIFIC TASTE

• Areas of the tongue are sensitive to all five tastes.

• However, different areas of the tongue have different
sensitivities towards specific taste.
• For example, the area in front of the tongue is more
sensitive to sweet taste whereas the sides are more
sensitive to sour and salty tastes.
• The area at the back of the tongue is more sensitive to
bitter taste.
• The area at the centre of the tongue, however is
more sensitive to umami taste.
 UMAMI

• Umami is classified as a basic taste because there are

taste receptors that can only detect umami taste.
• This is the same as other basic tastes such as sweet, salty,
sour and bitter.
• Umami taste is related to delicious tastes such
as the taste of meat in soups or the taste of fermented
foods such as cheese and mushrooms or monosodium
glutamate (MSG).
 FUNCTION OF TASTE BUDS

• When food is chewed, part or all the chemical

substances in the food dissolve in the saliva.
• These dissolved chemical substances will diffuse
into the taste buds through their pores and
stimulate the taste receptors in them to produce
nerve impulses.
• These nerve impulses are then sent to the brain to
be interpreted as sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami
tastes or a combination of the basic tastes.
 Chemicals in
food released Chemicals
by chewing dissolved by
saliva

Taste receptors
Detection of Taste stimulated by
chemicals in saliva

Brain interprets
the messages as a Taste receptors send
specific taste messages to the
brain
SKIN
 SKIN

• The skin is the largest

sensory organ in the human
body.
• The human skin is made up of
a thin outer layer known as
epidermis and an inner layer
known as dermis.
 The Structure of Human Skin
Three layers:

Epidermis Dermis

Hypodermis
(fat layer)
EPIDERMIS

• Outer layer of the skin.

divided into three layers.
• Outermost layer is made up of dead
cells.
• Tough and water-resistant .
• It also protects the sensitive cells under
it
• Prevents the entry of germs into the
body.
 DERMIS

• Inner layer of skin.

• Blood vessels, glands and receptors
are found
• The glands ~sweat glands and
sebaceous glands.
• Receptors~ touch receptors, pain
receptors, heat receptors, cold
receptors and pressure receptors.
HYPODERMIS
(FAT LAYER)
is a layer directly below
the dermis and serves to
connect the skin to the
fibrous tissue of the bones
and muscles.
 SKIN
• The skin has five types of
receptors at different positions to
detect different stimuli.
• When the receptor in the skin is
stimulated, nerve impulses are
produced and sent through
the nervous system to the brain to
be interpreted and to produce an
appropriate response.
 1. Cold receptors 2. Heat receptors
sensitive to heat.
sensitive to cold.
5. Pressure receptors
- sensitive to pressure.
- located the furthest
3. Pain receptors
from the epidermis.
Receptors in the Skin
- nearest to the - stimulated when any
epidermis. object presses hard
- nerves endings. 4. Touch receptors against the skin.
- sensitive to slight
pressure
- found more
abundantly in
certain parts
(fingertips).
 SENSITIVITY OF THE SKIN ON DIFFERENT
PARTS OF THE BODY TOWARDS STIMULI
• The sensitivity of skin towards stimuli depends on
the number of receptors and the thickness of the
skin epidermis.
• For example, the tip of the finger is very sensitive
towards touch because at the tip of the finger, there
is a large number of touch receptors and the
epidermis is thin.
• The tongue, nose and lips are also very sensitive to
touch.
• The elbow, the sole of the foot and the back of the
body are less sensitive to touch.
LIMITATIONS OF
SIGHT
• Limitation of sight is the
limitation in the ability of the eye
to see objects.
• We cannot see very tiny objects
such as microorganisms as well as
very distant objects such as planet
Jupiter.
• Limitations of sight include optical
illusions and blind spot.
OPTICAL ILLUSION

• Optical illusion occurs when

an object that is seen differs from
its actual state.
• Optical illusion occurs because the
brain is unable to accurately
interpret the object seen by
the eye due to distractions around
theobject.
OPTICAL ILLUSION
OPTICAL ILLUSION
OPTICAL ILLUSION
 OPTICAL
ILLUSION
 OPTICAL
ILLUSION
 OPTICAL
ILLUSION
BLIND SPOT
 BLIND SPOT
We are unaware of the presence of the blind spot in the eye because it is not
possible for theimage of the same object to fall on the blind spots of both eyes
simultaneously. Carry out the following simple activity to investigate the blind
spot.
Various devices used to overcome the limitations of sight.
-ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
TELESCOPE
 LIGHT
MICROSCOPE
BINOCULAR
 X-RAY
MACHINE
ULTRA SOUND
MACHINE
 TASK

Gather information on the use of

these devices from the Internet,
magazines, books, newspapers and
other sources. Present the findings
using multimedia presentation.
 EYE DEFECTS

In normal vision, light is focused accurately on the

retina to form an image on the retina. This will
produce a clear and sharp image on the retina.

Defects of vision:
(a) short (b) long (c)
sightedness. sightedness. astigmatism.
 A SHORT-SIGHTED PERSON

1. Can see nearby objects clearly but distant objects appear blur
due to the image of the object which falls in front of the
retina.
2. The eyeballs are too long and the eye lenses are too thick.
This is because the ciliary muscles are too weak to make the
eye lens thinner.
3. Can be corrected by wearing concave lenses.
CONCAVE LENSES
 A LONG-SIGHTED PERSON

1. Can see distant objects clearly but nearby objects appear

blur because the image of a near object falls behind the
retina.
2. The eyeballs are too short and the eye lenses are too thin.
This is because the ciliary muscles are too weak to make the
eye lens thicker.
3. The defect can be corrected by wearing convex lenses.
CONVEX LENSES
 ASTIGMATISM

Caused by irregular curvature of the cornea or the lens.

The light rays from an object is split and focused at different
points in the eye.
Some light may be focused on the retina, some light will be
focused in front or behind the retina.
Causes blurred vision for both near and distant objects

Can be corrected with cylindrical lenses

 • Limitations of hearing are limitations in the
ability of the ear to hear sound.
• We can only hear sounds of frequencies
between the range of 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
• The ears are unable to detect sounds which lie
LIMITATIONS
outside this frequency range.
OF HEARING
• The frequency range of hearing of every
individual is different.
• When a person gets older, the frequency range
of his hearing gets narrower as his eardrum
becomes less elastic.
 FIRST
STETHOSCOPE
• The first stethoscope made of
wood was invented by Rene
Laennec at Necker-Enfants
Malades Hospital, Paris in 1816.
Stethoscope helps us to
listen to the heartbeats.
Stethoscope
A loudspeaker amplifies sound
so that it can be heard
from far away.
LOUD SPEAKER
MICROPHONE
 • Defects of hearing occur when the sense
of hearing of a person does not function
well.
DEFECTS OF
• Defects of hearing are normally caused
HEARING
by damage to the ear due to infection by
microorganisms, injury, ageing process
or continuous exposure to loud sounds.
FACTORS OF
HEARING DEFECT
WAYS TO CORRECT THE HEARING DEFECT

• Damages to the outer ear and middle ear can be corrected

easily. For example, the clearing of foreign objects in the
ear canal.
• Punctured eardrum and damaged ossicles can also
be corrected using medicine or surgery.
• Damage to the inner ear is more difficult to correct.
• A damaged cochlea can be corrected using a cochlear
implant but a damaged auditory nerve cannot be corrected
using medicine or surgery.
HEARING AID
1.3 STIMULI AND RESPONSES IN
PLANTS
 • Like humans and animals, plants can
also detect stimuli and respond to
them.
STIMULI AND • The stimuli that can be detected by
RESPONSES IN plants include light, water, gravity
PLANTS and touch.
• The responses of plants can be divided
into two which is tropism and nastic
movement
 TROPISME
• Tropism is a directional response of plants to stimuli such as
light, water, gravity and touch coming from a certain direction.
• A certain part of a plant will grow towards or move away from
the detected stimulus.
• The part of a plant which grows towards a stimulus is known as
positive tropism whereas the part of a plant which grows away
from a stimulus is known as negative tropism.
• The directional response of plants normally occurs slowly and
less significantly.
 PHOTOTROPISM

• Phototropism is the response of plants towards light.

• Shoots of plants show positive phototropism which is
growth towards the direction of light
• As plants need light to carry out photosynthesis, positive
phototropism ensures that shoots and leaves of plants
obtain enough sunlight to make food through
photosynthesis
 HYDROTROPISM

• Hydrotropism is the response of plants towards

water.
• Roots of plants show positive hydrotropism which is
growth towards the direction of water
• Positive hydrotropism allows roots of plants to obtain
water to carry out photosynthesis and absorb dissolved
mineral salts to stay alive.
 GEOTROPISM
• Geotropism is the response of plants towards gravity.
• Roots of plants show positive geotropism which is
downward growth towards the direction of gravity.
• Positive geotropism allows the roots of plants to grow
deep into the ground to grip and stabilise the position
of the plant in the ground.
• On the other hand, shoots of plants show negative
geotropism which is upward growth in the opposite
direction of gravity.
• Negative geotropism allows the shoots and leaves of
plants to grow upwards to obtain sunlight for
photosynthesis
 THIGMOTROPISM

• Thigmotropism is the response towards touch.

• Tendrils or twining stems show positive
thigmotropism when they cling onto whatever
objects or other plants they come into contact
• This response enables plants to grow upwards to
obtain sunlight and grip objects to obtain
support.
• Roots show negative thigmotropism since they
avoid any object that obstructs their search for
water.
THIGMOTROPISME
 • Nastic movement is the response towards
a stimulus such as touch but does not
depend on the direction of the stimulus.
• Nastic movement occurs more rapidly
than tropism. For example, the Mimosa sp.
NASTIC responds to touch by folding its leaves
MOVEMENT inwards when touched as shown in
Photograph 1.21.
• This nastic movement serves as a defence
of the Mimosa sp. against its enemies and
strong wind.
NASTIC MOVEMENT
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF RESPONSES
TO STIMULI IN ANIMALS
STEREOSCOPIC
VISIONS
MONOCULAR VISIONS
 STEREOPHONIC HEARING

• Stereophonic hearing is hearing using both ears.

• Stereophonic hearing allows us to determine the direction of
the sound accurately.
• The importance of stereophonic hearing to humans is to
determine the location of a source of sound.
• Stereophonic hearing helps predators to determine the location
of their prey.
• Conversely, stereophonic hearing also helps prey to determine
the location of their predators and to escape from them.
HEARING
FREQUENCIES
OF ANIMALS
 Secretion of
SENSORY ORGANS pheromone
ENSURE THE
SURVIVAL OF
ANIMALS ON
EARTH
LATERAL LINE
Producing electric field
TASK