Chapter 1

The Selection of a Research

Design
 Research Meaning and Types
 Research means Search for Knowledge.
 Research means searching something again. It can also be
defined as a scientific and systematic search for gaining
information and knowledge on a specific topic or issue. It is
also known as the art of scientific investigation.
 In other words, research is the process of finding solutions
to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the
situational factors.
 Research types can be
 Basic (Theoretical): theory development with no intent of applying it
in near future
 Applied (Empirical): practical problem solving research based on
real data.
 Other additional categories can be action research, case study
research
 The Three Types of Designs
Qualitative Research is a means for exploring and
understanding the meaning individuals or groups
ascribe to a social or human problem.
Quantitative research is a means for testing objective
theories by examining the relationship among
variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured,
typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be
analyzed using statistical procedures.
Mixed research is an approach to inquiry involving
collecting both quantitative and qualitative data,
integrating the two forms of data, and using distinct
designs that may involve philosophical assumptions
and theoretical frameworks.
 Three Questions?
Creswell (2003) proposed three questions to the
design of research:
1. What worldviews are made by the researcher?
2. What strategy of inquiry will inform the procedures?
3. What methods of data collection and analysis will be
used?
 Components Involved in a Design
Research design involves intersection of:
Philosophical Worldviews,
Strategies of Enquiry, and
Research Methods
 Philosophical Worldviews
Worldview is a basic set of beliefs that guide
action. It can also be viewed as a general
orientation about the world and the nature of
research that a researcher holds.
These worldviews are shaped by the discipline
area of the student, the beliefs of advisors and
faculty in a student’s area, and past research
experiences.
Four different worldviews are:
Post-positivism
Constructivism
Advocacy/participatory
Pragmatism
 The Post-positivist Worldview
 Also called the scientific method, quantitative research, empirical
 Reflects a deterministic philosophy in which causes probably
determine effects or outcome.
 Knowledge is developed through careful observation and
measurement of objective reality. Focus on numeric measures.
 There are laws or theories that govern the world and this need to be
tested or verified & refined.
 An individual begins with a theory, collects data that either support
or refutes the theory and makes necessary revisions before
additional tests are conducted.
 Knowledge is conjectural (anti-foundational). Absolute truth can
never be found. Thus evidence established in research is always
imperfect & fallible.
 Research is a process of making claims and then refining or
abandoning some of them for other claims.
 Being objective is an essential aspect of competent inquiry and
researchers must examine methods & conclusion for bias. For
example, standards of validity and reliability are important in
quantitative research.
 The Social Constructivist Worldview
 Individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and
work. They develop subjective meanings of their experiences.
 These meanings are varied and multiple leading the researcher to
look for complexity of views rather than narrowing meanings into
few categories or ideas.
 The questions are broad and general
 Often these subjective meanings are negotiated socially and
historically. In other words, they are not simply “imprinted” on
individuals but are formed through interaction with others (hence
social constructivism)
 Researchers recognize that their own background shapes their
interpretation. Their interpretation flows from their own personal,
cultural and historical background.
 Rather than starting with a theory (as a positivist) inquirers generate
or inductively develop a theory.
 The process of qualitative research is inductive in nature.
 The Advocacy and Participatory Worldview
 This position arose during the 1980s and 90s from individuals who
felt that the positivist assumption imposed structural laws and
theories that don’t fit marginalized groups or did not adequately
address the issue of social justice.
 These researchers believe that inquiry need to be intertwined with
politics and political agenda.
 Research should contain an action agenda for reform that may
change the lives of the participants, the institutions and the
researcher’s life.
 Specific issues to be addressed include empowerment, inequality,
oppression, domination, suppression, alienation.
 The research assume that the inquirer will proceed collaboratively so
as to not further marginalize the participants. So participants may
help design questions, collect data, analyze information, receive
rewards for participating in the change.
 The Pragmatic Worldview
Pragmatism as a worldview arises out of actions,
situations and consequences rather than antecedent
conditions (as a positivist)
Instead of methods being important, the problem is
the most important and researchers use all
approaches to understand the problem
Pragmatists are not committed to any one system of
philosophy or reality. They apply mixed methods
research.
 Strategies of Inquiry
They are called research methodologies
and they provide specific direction for
procedures in a research design.
Three strategies of inquiry
Quantitative
Qualitative
Mixed
Strategies with Quantitative Approach
Experiments: seeks to determine if a specific
treatment influences an outcome.
Experiments include true experiments with the
random assignment of subjects to treatment
conditions as well as quasi-experiments that use
non-randomized design.
Surveys: provides a quantitative or numeric
descriptions of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a
population by studying a sample of that
population.
It includes cross-sectional and longitudinal
studies using questionnaires and structured
interviews for data collection, with the intent of
generalizing from a sample to a population.
 Strategies with Qualitative Approach
 Ethnographies: the researcher studies an intact cultural group in a
natural setting over a prolonged period of time by collecting
primarily, observational and interview data.
 Grounded theory: The researcher tires to develop a general, abstract
theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded on the views of
the participants. There is constant comparison of data with emerging
categories.
 Case studies: The researcher explores in depth a program, event,
activity, process or one or more individuals.
 Phenomenological research: studying a small number of subjects
through extensive and prolonged engagement to develop pattern and
relationships of meaning. In this process, the researcher “brackets”
his or her own experience in order to understand those of the
participants of the study.
 Narrative research: a form of inquiry in which the researcher studies
the lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide
stories about their lives. This information is retold in narrative
chronology.
 Strategies with Mixed Approach
The rationale for using mixed methods is:
All methods have limitations so using mixed methods
could neutralize or cancel the bias of other methods.
Triangulating evidence
The result from one method can help develop or
inform other methods.
Alternatively one method can be nested with other
methods to provide insights into different unit of
analysis.
The method can serve a larger transformative purpose
to change and advocate for marginalized groups.
The strategies with mixed methods are
Sequential
Concurrent
Transformative
 Research Methods
The specific method of data collection,
analysis and interpretation that researchers
propose for their studies.
The full range of possibilities of data
collection and to organize these methods
include classification by their degree of
predetermined nature, their use of closed
ended vs. open ended questioning and their
focus for numeric vs. non-numeric data
analysis.
 Research Designs as Worldviews, Strategies, and
Methods
 Based on the above discussions of worldviews, strategies of
inquiry and research methods, we have three approaches to
research.
 Quantitative: they use positivist worldviews, use experiments
and survey as strategy of inquiry and collect data on
predetermined instrument that yield statistical data.
 Qualitative: they use either constructivist or advocacy
worldviews. Use strategy of inquiry such as ethnography,
grounded theory, case study, phenomenological research,
narrative research. The researcher collect open ended emerging
data with the intent of developing themes from the data.
 Mixed: they use pragmatic worldviews. Strategies of inquiry
are sequential, concurrent or transformative. The data collection
involves gathering both numeric information and text
information.
 Criteria for Selecting a Design
 Match between problem and design
 If the problem is identifying factors that influence an outcome, the utility
of an intervention, test of a theory, then quantitative approach is best.
 If a concept or phenomenon needs to be understood because little
research has been done, it merits a qualitative approach
 A mixed method design is useful to capture the best of both quantitative
and qualitative approaches.
 Training, experience and preference of the researcher
 Individuals who have good background in statistics, computer packages
prefer quantitative design
 Individuals who wish to work with highly systematic procedures still
prefer the quantitative mode.
 Those who prefer to be more creative, require literary writing style need
qualitative mode.
 Audience
 The audience may be journal editors, journal readers, graduate
committee, conference attendees etc. So you should use the design based
on target audience.
 Students should consider the design typically supported by and used by
their advisors.