CHAPTER 1

LESSON 1: ANIMALS' SPECIALIZED STRUCTURES

 Where did the birds in Guam go?

 Brown tree snake

 A native species from northern and eastern Australia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and parts of
Indonesia.
 Thrives in hollow trees, rock crevices, and caves of tropical environment.
 An excellent climber that hunts at night, devouring native lizards, birds and mammals.

The brown tree snake has been accountable for the extinction of 10 out of 11 forest native birds in Guam. 
Today, there is an estimated two million brown tree snakes in the forest of Guam and the number is expected to
grow up to three million.
Brown tree snakes are considered both ecological and economic threats in Guam.
 Animal cells grow, mature, and undergo
differentiation. 
Lesson 1.1: Tissues are formed as a result of cell
Animals' differentiation.

Specialized The human body, for example, is made up

of more than 200 differentiated cells.
Structure
A tissue is a group of similar cells that performs
a common function.
 Histology
 The study of animal and plant tissues. Histology
involves the preparation of thin tissue sections,
differentially stained and examined under
Animals' the microscope
Microtome
Specialized  An instrument used to cut tissues into ultrathin
Structure sections. Tissue sections are treated with biological
stain (dyes) to differentiate cells and tissues, and
to have a clearer view of the different parts under the
microscope.
EPITHELIAL TISSUES COVER

 Are widespread throughout the body. They form the covering of

all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are
the major tissue in glands. 
     -    May be simple or stratified.
 Simple Epithelium – Is made up of single layer of cells.
 Stratified Epithelium – has more than one layer of cells. 
There are three types of Epithelium based on
their shape:

 Simple Squamous Epithelium 

 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium 
 Simple Columnar Epithelium
Simple Squamous Epithelium 

  Consists of a single layer of flattered cells. 

 Flattered Cells -Are usually found in thin barriers where exchange
of nutrients, wastes, and respiratory gases occur.
 They are found in the alveoli of the lungs and capillaries , All blood
vessels and the heart are lined with simple Squamous cells.
Simple Cluboidal Epithelium 

 is a single layer of cube-shaped cells. 

 Cuboidal cells – Are also found in the tubules of the
kidneys and the ducts of most glands. 
 They can perform more complex functions such as
absorption and secretion.
Simple Columnar Epithelium 

 Is a single layer of elongated cell. This type of epithelium is ideal for absorption and
secretion as it contains large cytoplasmic volumes with enough organelles and energy
reserves to engage in complex activities. 
  
 Microvilli – This are extensions of the cell membrane to increase their surface area of
absorption. 
 Goblet Cells – Are specialized columnar cells found in the lining of the stomach and
small intestines responsible for mucus secretion. 
 Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium – is found in the small
bronchioles of the respiratory tract for mucus movement and in the
fallopian tubes of the female reproductive cell movement. 
 Pseudostratified Epithelium – Is the “falsely stratified”
Epithelium. It is made up of columnar cells that are tall and thin,
forming irregular shapes. 
 Pseudostratified Epithelium – Is found in the upper respiratory
tract as ciliated types. 
 • Loose Connective tissues are also called areolar connective
tissues. Loose Connective Tissues are found beneath the epithelia
of the skin around blood vessels, muscles, and nerves; and in
internal organs such as the lungs and the urinary bladder. 

CONNECTIVE • Special white blood cells called macrophages can also be found in

TISSUE the matrix. Collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers are likewise
found in the matrix. 

PROPER • Dense connective tissues are made up of closely packed bundles

of collagen fibers with few cells, they are less flexible than Loose
Connective tissues but are more rigid. Dense connective tissues
are found in tendons that connect muscles to bones, in ligaments
that connect bones to other bones, and in the dermis of the skin. 
  Reticular connective tissues are made up of cells called
reticulocytes (specialized fibroblasts) and a matrix that contains
reticular fibers. They give support to soft organs such as  spleen,
lymph nodes, and liver. 

CONNECTIVE   Elastic connective tissues, as the name implies, are highly elastic

(flexible), which flattened fibroblasts cells with a matrix that

TISSUE PROPE contains bundle of elastic fibers and interspersed collagen fibers.

These fibers provide elasticity to tissues, they are found in such
large arteries such as aorta, bronchial tubes and in the ligaments
R  of the vertebral column. 

 dipose tissues or fat tissues, are special types of connective

tissues that store fats. Adipocytes contain a large vacuole that
stores the fat. As a result, the nucleus is pushed to one side,
giving the cell the appearance of a signet ring. 
  Muscular tissues are contractile tissues
responsible for movement. The muscle cells (or
Muscular tissues more accurately called muscle fibers) that make
up muscle tissues contain myosin and actin, the
contract proteins involved in muscle contraction. 
There are three types of muscular tissues:
skeletal, cardiac and smooth
SKELETAL MUSCLE
TISSUE

 •Skeletal muscular tissue, as the name implies, are

attached to bones through tendons. They are
responsible for the movement of most body parts
and for locomotion. The contractions of skeletal
muscles are under voluntary control.
 • A skeletal muscle fiber is long and cylindrical,
unbranched and contains multiple nuclei.
 • Under the microscope, its fibers appear as
alternating dark and light bands; thus it is called
striated (with striations) muscles. These bands are
due to the arrangement of  myosin and actin
filaments. 
CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE

 •Cardiac muscle tissue or heart muscle as it is sometimes called, is

found only in only one place in the body – the walls of the heart. The
actual muscular wall of the heart called myocardium. Cardiac muscle
has a very unique structure and could be describe as intermediate or “in
between” skeletal and smooth muscle. 
 • The contraction of cardiac muscles causes the heart to beat, which
pumps blood. Cardiac muscles are striated but its contraction is
involuntarily controlled. 
 • Cardiac muscular tissues are both separate and individual cells but are
compactly arranged with each other. Intercalated discs join one muscle
fiber to another. They allow impulses to move freely from one muscle
fiber to another. This results in a coordinated contraction called the
heartbeat.
Smooth muscle tissue
 Smooth muscular tissues are non-striated, spindle-shaped muscles that are involuntarily controlled.
They are unbranched with a single nucleus per cell. 
 Smooth muscles are found in the walls of the stomach, intestines, urinary bladder, uterus and blood
vessels. 
 The contraction of the smooth muscles causes these organs to constrict its diameter. In the stomach
and small intestines, these muscle contractions cause peristalsis. In the urinary bladder, contractions
cause the expulsion of urine.
NERVOUS TISSUES
CONDUCT
• The nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells called neurons, which are
found in the brain and spinal cord.
• Neurons are specialized cells that conduct impulses to and from the brain.

A typical neuron is made up of three parts:

•Dendrites receive impulses and send them to the cell body.
• The cell body is like a typical cell where the nucleus and organelles are
found.
• Axon is a long fiber-like part that transmits the impulses away from the cell
body to the next neuron.
  What is Tissue?

TISSUE FORM   -In biology, tissue is a cellular organizational level

ORGANS AND between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an
ensemble of similar cells and their extracellular
ORGAN matrix from the same origin that together carry out
SYSTEMS  a specific function. Organs are then formed by the
functional grouping together of multiple tissues. 
 human body, the physical substance of
the human organism, composed of living cells and
extracellular materials and organized into tissues, organs,
and systems. human body; human anatomy. 
 TABLE 1.1
ORGANS SYSTEMS: MAJOR ORGANS AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS
SYSTEM MAJOR STRUCTURES FUNCTIONS

INTEGUMENTARY Skin, nails and hair Protects against injury, infection and fluid loss
Provides structure and support.

MUSCULAR Skeletal, smooth and cardiac Moves limbs and trunk

muscular tissue Moves substances through the body
Provides structure and support

SKELETAL Bones and Joints Protects and supports the body and organs
Interacts with skeletal muscles

CIRCULATORY Heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph Transport nutrients, gases, ions, hormones, and
nodes, and vessels, and lymph. wastes.
 SYSTEM MAJOR STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS

NERVOUS Brain, Spinal cord, nerves and sense organs Regulates Behavior
Maintains Homeostasis
Regulates other organ systems
Controls sensory and motor functions

DIGESTIVE Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Liver, Extracts and absorbs nutrients from food
Pancreas and Small and Large Intestines Removes wastes
Maintains water and chemical balances

RESPIRATORY Lungs, Nose, Mouth, and Trachea Moves air into and out of lungs
Controls gas exchange between blood
and lungs

EXCRETORY Kidneys, Urinary bladder, ureters and Removes wastes from the blood
urethra Regulates concentration of body fluids
 SYSTEM MAJOR STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS

ENDOCRINE Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, Regulates body temperature,

parathyroid, pineal body, adrenal glands, metabolism, development and
pancreas, testes, and ovaries reproductions.
Maintain Homeostasis
Regulates other organ system

REPRODUCTIVE Testes and penis in males; Produces gametes and offsprings

Ovaries and Uterus in females

IMMUNE White blood cells, lymph nodes, and Defends against pathogens and diseases
vessels, and skin.
 A body’s bones are 50 percent longer one after birth. If this is the
case, why are six year olds not as tall as adults, then? 
 Protien signals may slow down fast growth, so the annual rate of
bone lengthening is only seven percent a year by age of three.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM SKELETAL SYSTEM  DIGESTIVE SYSTEM CIRCULATORY IMMUNE SYSTEM
SYSTEM

Provides movements, Provides support for the Breaks down food and Transports nutrients, Destroys and removes
maintain posture, and body, protects delicate absorbs nutrients that gases ( O2 and CO2), invading microbes and
produces heat internal organs, and are necessary for growth hormones, and viruses from the body
provides attachment and maintenance wastes through the body
sites for the organs
RESPIRATORY EXCRETORY NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM  SYSTEM  SYSTEM  SYSTEM

Provides gas exchange Filters out cellular Relays signals through Relays chemical Produces sex cells and
between the blood and wastes, toxins, and the body that direct messages through the sex hormones that
environment excess water or nutrients behavior and movement, body that help control allows reproduction.
and controls physiological processes Sperms in males are
physiological processes created to fertilize the
egg. Females have
supporting organs for
the developing embryo
as well as to produce
Plants Have Organs, Too
LESSON 2
  Associated with the presence of vascular tissues
is the development of plant organs that are
specialized for essential plant functions. Organs
Plant Tissues that allow the plant to live and grow are called
vegetative organs. These include the roots,
stems and leaves. 
The roots anchors the plant to The stem is the main axis of the plant The leaves are responsible for the
together with its branches. It functions manufacture of food by photosynthesis.
the soil for support and as a support and for the transport of Flowers, fruits, and seeds are organs
absorbs water and minerals water and nutrients absorbed by the involved in reproduction.
from the soil.  roots to the leaves. It also distributes
All these plant organs are made up of
the products of photosynthesis to the
other plant parts.  groups of similar cells with a common
function: The Plant Tissues. 
 Compared to animals, plants have fewer types of tissues. There
are two main types of tissues in vascular plants: meristematic
and permanent. Permanent tissues are further divided into
surface (dermal), fundamental (ground), and vascular. These
plant tissues are either made up of one type of cells, or two or
more different cell types with a common function. Table 1-2
summarizes the tissues and cell types of flowering plants.
 uA plant grows because it has meristems. Meristems are made up of embryonic tissues called meristematic
issues.
 uMeristems are part of the plant where growth is fastest. Apical meristems are found in the tip of the stems or
roots that allow these organs to grow longer. Lateral meristems (also called secondary meristems or lateral buds)
are found on the nodes of stems and are involved in the formation of branches
 uThe cambium is a ring of meristematic tissues found inside a mature stem, which allows growth in diameter or
increase in the thickness of stems or roots
 uA vascular cambium produces new layers of vascular tissues, whereas a cork cambium produces new layers of
surface tissue called cork. 
 uThe cells found in meristematic tissues are usually small, thin-walled, and with no central vacuole and
specialized features. Their main function is to undergo cell division called mitosis. The cells produced by
meristematic tissues grow, mature, and differentiate into either a surface, fundamental, or vascular tissue.
SURFACE TISSUES PROTECT

 SURFACE OR DERMAL TISSUES COVER AND PROTECT

THE SURFACE OF THE DIFFERENT PLANT ORGANS. THE
CELLS THAT MAKE UP SURFACE TISSUES ARE USUALLY
FLATTENED WITH THEIR TOP AND BOTTOM SURFACE
PARALLEL. 
 OUTER CELL WALL OF EPIDERMIS IS COVERED WITH A
LAYER OF CUTICLE THAT IS MADE UP OS A SUBSTANCE
CALLED CUTIN. 
 CUTIN - a waxy, water-repellent substance occurring. In the
cuticle of plants and consisting of highly polymerized esters of
fatty acids. 
 EPIDERMIS - IS ALSO FOUND IN THE OUTER LAYER OF LEAVES,STEMS, ROOTS,
FLOWERS AND EVEN SEEDS. 
 ROOT HAIRS - ARE SLENDER PROJECTIONS FOUND IN THE EPIDERMAL CELLS OF
ROOTS, WHICH ENABLE A CELL’S MODIFICATION TO INCREASE THE SURFACE AREA
OF THE ROOT FOR ABSORPTION. 
 GUARD CELLS - ARE MODIFIED EPIDERMAL CELLS FOUND ON LEAVES THAT
FUNCTION TO OPEN OR CLOSE THE STOMATA. 
 STOMATA - THE LEAF OPENING FOR GAS EXCHANGE. 
 CORK - IS ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF SURFACE TISSUE THAT COVERS THE OUTER
SURFACE OF THE BARK OF WOODY STEMS AND ROOTS. THE CORK IS MADE UP OF
DEAD CORK CELLS THAT MAY BE SLOUGHED OFF. CORK CELLS ARE PRODUCED BY
THE CORK CAMBIUM, ASLO PROTECTS PLANT FROM MECHANICAL INJURY. 
 CORK CAMBIUM - cambium, called the phellogen or cork cambium, is the source of
the periderm, a protective tissue that replaces the epidermis when the secondary growth
displaces, and ultimately destroys, the epidermis of the primary plant body. 
Fundamental Tissues Fil 

 Fundamental or ground tissues the main bulk of

plants – They fill most of the spaces in any plant organ.
The cells that from the fundamental tissues are involved
in the production and storage of food, and serves as
support for the plant. 
Fundamental tissues are made up of three
types of cells: 

 Parenchyma Cells – They are large, thin-walled, And usually have a large central
vacuole.
           -   They are found in leaves, stems, roots, flower, and fruits. Parenchyma cells usually
contain plastids. 
 Parenchyma cells are capable of cell division and could give rise to more specialized
cells, such as when roots develop from stem cuttings placed in water.
 Collenchyma Cells – Function mainly as support, They are similar
in structure to parenchyma cells except that they have a thicker cell
wall, 
        -   They can be found in areas that are growing rapidly and
needed to be strengthened. 
        -   The leaf stalk or petiole is usually reinforced with
collenchyma cells.
  Sclerenchyma Cells – Have a thick secondary cell wall in addition
to the primary cell wall. The secondary cell wall is impregnated
with lignin
There are Two types of Sclerenchyma cells: 

 Fibers – Are long and slender, Whereas Sclereids are irregular in

shape. 
 Sclereids – Are responsible for tough seed coats and nutshells.
  Vascular tissues are complex conducting tissues
that extend from the roots to the leaves of
plants.
VASCULAR
TISSUES TWO TYPES OF VASCULAR TISSUES:
TRANSPORT 1. XYLEM
2. PHLOEM
1.) XYLEM 2.) PHLOEM 
 The xylem transports water and minerals from  Transports organic nutrients in both directions
roots to leaves via the stem. along the length of the plant. The phloem is
usually located outside the xylem.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF
CONDUCTING CELLS FOUND IN THE
XYLEM:

 TRACHEIDS  VESSEL ELEMENTS 

 Are elongated, hollow, and nonliving cells  Are also hollow and nonliving, but are larger
with tapered ends. Water and minerals can and without ends walls. Vessel elements form
pass between tracheids through the pits or a continuous pipeline of water and minerals
depressions found in its end walls. from the roots to the leaves. In addition, the
xylem also contains parenchyma cells that
store substances.
 The phloem contains living conducting cells called sieve tube members, each of which
has a companion cell. The sieve tube members are elongated cells with few organelles and
no nucleus.
  The end walls of the sieve tube members called sieve plates are perforated, allowing
cytoplasmic connections between vertically stacked cells.
 This vertical stacking of the sieve tube members form the sieve tube. The products of
photosynthesis, such us sugars and amino acids, are transported through sieve tube from
the sites where they are manufactured to the sites where they are consumed of stored.
Companion cells are believed to control the transport activities of the sieve tube cells.
Shoot system  Root system  

 The shoot system is composed of the stem, the   is the descending (growing downwards)
leaves, and the flowers. portion of the plant axis. When a seed
germinates, radicle is the first organ to come
out. It elongates to form primary or the
tap root. It gives off lateral branches
(secondary and tertiary roots) and thus forms
the root system.
LEAVES 
 Leaves are the chief organ of plants for photosynthesis. Because
of this, leaves need a constant supply of vital elements of solar
energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Aside from photosynthesis,
some leaves also function in asexual reproduction. 
 Plants differ in terms of the ability of the leaves to change color.
Leaves also vary greatly in size and shapes
 When you cut a leaf and look it up under a microscope, it will
reveal several structures. The top and bottom surfaces protect the
plant cells inside. The surface layers have stomata or pores that
close and open to let essential gases enter and leave the leaf.  
  In between the layers are veins with the xylem and
phloem. The structure of leaf itself is adapted
to perform photosynthesis. The cells containing
chloroplasts are found near the surface of the
leaf, allowing it to collect more light. 

LEAVES  As by products of photosynthesis, sugar and oxygen

are produced from the raw materials of carbon dioxide
and water. Oxygen then exits out of the open stomata.
Sugar enters the phloem and is transported throughout
the plant. 
  A stem is an above ground structure that
supports the leaves, transports water and
important nutrients between roots and leaves,
and produces new tissue for growth.
 At the end of the stem is a terminal bud, also
know as the apical bud, which produces new
STEMS leaves and other tissues during primary growth.
On the sides, branches grow from the lateral bud
which is also known as the axillary bud, where a
leaf connects with the stem.
 A node is where the leaf or leaves are attached
to the stem, whereas the region on between
nodes is an internode. 
  Stems also support plants in various ways. Trees
have stems that support numerous branches,
while vines have stems that requires support. 
 Stems can also be herbaceous or woody. A
herbaceous stem has no relation to cambium
growth, that is why it is soft. Woody stems, on
the other hand, are hard and rigid as seen in
STEMS  trees. 
 Herbaceous and woody stems both consist of
vascular tissues in the form of xylem and
phloem. Vascular tissues make up the stem that
transports water and minerals from the roots
through the stem and to the leaves.
 Stems can also perform other functions.
  The root systems enable a plant to anchor itself in the soil
while absorbing water and minerals (nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, and other inorganic molecules) to
the rest of its body. 
 Roots have a slimy surface and cylindrical shape that
allow the plants to penetrate the soil as they growin size
and also allow water to be absorbed from all directions.
 The tip of the root is round in shape and covered with a
ROOTS structure called root cap. It protects the plants from rock
injury that may damage the roots as it grows
Root hairs
 Increases the absorptive capacity of roots and also helps
anchor the plant in the soil.
 Replace constantly like body cells.
 Adventitious Roots
 Arise from an organ other than the roots, such as stems
or a leaf.
 Can be modified for aerial support known as prop
roots.
 Corn plants have prop roots that give the plant better
support.
ROOTS
Apart from its usual function of transport, most roots also
function as important storage for food produced by plants.
Most plants use the food stored in their roots during the
growing season and use this to keep them alive during
winter.
  In summary, for an organism to function properly and maintain internal
SUMMARY homeostasis, its parts mus be organized into a hierarchy of levels, with
each level increasing in complexity.
 The multicellular structures are organized into a hierarchy – cells, tissues,
organs, organ systems – to make a functioning organism.
 Cells are specialized for a particular structure and chemical makeup to be
able to perform its task. 
 Tissues are composed of similar cells that perform a common function.
 Organs are a group of tissues that carry out diverse functions of the body.
 Multiple organs work together to perform body function and form organ
systems. These organs make up an entire organism