Kwame Nkrumah University of

Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

THE PARAGRAPH IN ACADEMIC

AND PROFESSIONAL WRITINGS

Osei Yaw Akoto (PhD)

Department of English
KNUST
 Objectives
Students should:
• Have a better idea about when to paragraph
• Learn strategies for writing a unified
paragraph
• Better understand what makes a coherent
paragraph
• Learn methods for organizing paragraphs
• Learn about how transitions contribute to a
better paragraph
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 Students’ activity

Write a-one
paragraph essay on
any topic of your
choice.
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 WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?
• From Greek word, “paragraphos”, meaning
a line showing a break in sense or a change
of speakers in a dialogue.
• A paragraph is a group of related sentences
that develops one main idea.
• It’s a self-contained unit of a discourse in
writing dealing with a particular point or
idea
• It’s a miniature essay.
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Structural Features of Paragraph

• Indentation
• Block

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 When to paragraph
• Whenever you move from one major point to
another.
• Whenever you move your readers from one time
period or location to another
• Whenever you introduce a new step in a process or
sequence
• When you want to emphasize an important idea.
• Every time a new person speaks (dialogue).
• To signal the end of your introduction and the
beginning of your conclusion.

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Qualities of a Good Paragraph
 Unity (1)
• Contains one main or central idea.
• Every sentence in the paragraph must
directly or indirectly support this idea.
• A sentence is thus meaningless unless it
is linked up with the total development
of the central idea.
 Coherence/Cohesion (2)
• A paragraph is not a ‘forest of sentences’ rather sentences that are
interconnected/related.
• A good paragraph is said to be cohesive when there is a ‘thread’ that ties all the
sentences up to produce a ‘chain’.
• Well organized details
– Spatial
– Chronological
– Importance
– logical
• A clear connection by using Linkers/connectors
• Cohesive strategies:
– Use of pronouns
– Repetition of key words
– Use of Synonyms of key words
– Use of transitional words (e.g. firstly, moreover, furthermore…)
 Examples of Connectives/Linkers
• To Signify Sequence or Addition
again, also, besides, first . . .second . . .third, furthermore,
In addition, moreover, one . . . another, too
• To Signal Time
afterward, as soon as, at first, at the same time, before, earlier,
finally, in the meantime, later, meanwhile, next, now, soon,
subsequently, then, until
• To Signal Comparison
also, by the same token, in comparison, likewise, similarly
• To Signal Contrast
although, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast, instead,
Meanwhile, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on one hand .
on the other hand, still, whereas, yet, conversely
 More Examples of Connectives/Linkers
• To Introduce Examples
for example, for instance, namely, specifically, thus
• To Signal the Narrowing of Focus
after all, indeed, in fact, in other words, in particular, specifically,
that is
• To Introduce Conclusions or Summaries
as a result, consequently, in conclusion, in other words, in summary
therefore, thus, to conclude, finally
• To Signal Concession to Another Perspective
admittedly, certainly, granted, naturally, of course
• To Introduce Causes or Effects
accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, hence, since, so,
then, therefore
 Completeness (3)

• It means that the central idea captured must be

fully developed.
• Some main ideas sometimes suffer:
1. under-development
2. overdevelopment: The writer may even end up
repeating ideas.
3. wrong development : A different idea, rather than the
one stated, is developed.
Thus, a good paragraph is a

UCC paragraph.
 Rearrange the sentences
1. It contains, of course, the meanings of difficult words. 2.
One of the most important reference tools that you must
possess is a dictionary. 3. It also gives you the pronunciation
of the words. 4. You do possess one, perhaps, but I doubt
whether you are aware of the different kinds of information
it contains. 5. The dictionary can be referred to for the
various grammatical forms of the words. 6. Every college
dictionary should provide at least these four kinds of
information about words, namely, pronunciation, meaning,
grammatical patterns and usage. 7. Finally, a good
dictionary contains illustrative sentences or phrases,
showing how words are actually used.
 Rearranged Version
2 One of the most important reference tools that you must possess is
a dictionary. 4 You do possess one, perhaps, but I doubt whether you
are aware of the different kinds of information it contains. 1 It
contains, of course, the meanings of difficult words. 3 It also gives
you the pronunciation of the words. 5 The dictionary can be referred
to for the various grammatical forms of the words. 6 Every college
dictionary should provide at least these four kinds of information
about words, namely, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical patterns
and usage. 7 Finally, a good dictionary contains illustrative sentences
or phrases, showing how words are actually used.

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 Types of paragraph
• There are four types of paragraphs that
you need to know about:
• Descriptive
• Narrative
• Expository, and
• Argumentative.
 The narrative paragraph
This type of paragraph tells a story. There's a
sequence of action or there's a clear beginning,
middle, and end to the paragraph.
• Tells a story
• Uses specific details
• Is not a mere listing of events- it has characters, setting, conflict,
and resolution
– Time and place are usually established
• Usually chronologically organized
• The narration is about a series of events, and it has an organized.
 The descriptive paragraph
• It describes, and shows the reader what a thing
or a person is like.
• The words chosen in the description often
appeal to the five senses:
– Touch
– Smell
– Sight
– Hearing
– Taste.
 The expository paragraph
• This type of paragraph explains something or
provides instruction.
• It could also describe a process and move
the reader step by step through a method.
• It often requires research, but it's possible
that the writer is able to rely on his or her
own knowledge and expertise.
 The argumentative paragraph
• It tries to get the reader to accept a particular point
of view or understand the writer's position.
• It often requires the collection of facts and research.
• Calls reader to action or to take a stand on an
important issue
• More than just opinion is needed; information,
analysis, and context must be given to the reader
to let him/her make a decision.
 The real vs ideal: What writers really do

• It important to note that many

paragraphs are a combination of these
four types.
• All writings are persuasive.
Paragraph Development
 Functional Sentences in a Paragraph

1. Topic sentence
2. Major supporting sentence
3. Minor supporting sentence
4. Concluding sentence
5. Transitional sentence
 Topic sentence (1)
• It is the sentence that contains the
main/central idea developed in a
paragraph.
• It tells what a paragraph is going
to be about.
• It is also the most general sentence in a
paragraph.
 Examples of Topic Sentence
• There are many reasons that I love to teach.
First of all, I love to teach because I love being
at school. Another reason I love teaching is
that the days go by quickly. A third reason I
love to teach is because I love seeing a student
understand something new. Finally, I love to
teach because I love to be around kids. These
are just a few reasons I love to teach.
 Types of Topic Sentence
– Explicit: It is directly stated in the text, such that one
can easily underline it. Common in expository and
argumentative discourses/writings/essays.
– Implied : It is indirectly captured. One has to read
the text and make deductions. Common in narrative
and descriptive writings.
 May be stated or unstated (implied)
 When stated, the main idea is expressed in the
topic sentence.
 Placement of topic sentences (TS)
• Three stages
1. Initial stage
2. Medial stage
3. Final stage
The positioning of a TS is informed by a number of factors:
1. Style
2. Formality
3. The subject matter (topic)
4. Purpose of writing
 Explicit Topic Sentence
• 1The high cost of college causes many problems
for students today. 2For one thing, it keeps some
students from attending college in the first place.
3Also, high tuitions affect the amount of time
available for study. 4Because loans and
scholarships are not easy to get, many students
have to put in numerous hours at work in order to
afford an education. 5Finally, those who do
manage to get loans know they must begin their
careers with large debts.
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 Practicing Implied Main Ideas
Read to discover the implied main idea in this paragraph:
College students must attend classes for several
1

hours each day. 2When in class, they must listen

carefully to their professors and take careful notes.
3
In addition, students must spend many hours
reading difficult textbooks that deal with many varied
subjects. 4Furthermore, college students must take a
few hours daily to complete homework assignments
and to prepare for regular exams. 5Besides all this,
they must frequently do research papers and write
essays.
The best statement of the implied main idea
for the paragraph is:

1.Taking notes is a difficult task for many students.

2.College students have to do a lot of homework.
3.Tests and research are very important
requirements
for college students.
4.College students must spend much time doing
everything that is required of them.

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 Keep these suggestions in mind.
1.The topic sentence must include the topic
within it
2.A topic sentence must NOT include details; it
is a general sentence.
3.A topic sentence must NOT contain transitions
(terms like “for instance,” “second,” “in
addition”) which suggest examples.

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 Supporting Sentences
• They develop, explain and support the main
idea of the paragraph.
• They come after the topic sentence
• They make up the body of the paragraph
• They give supporting facts, details and examples
• Forms of Supporting Sentences
– Major Supporting Sentence
– Minor Supporting Sentence
 Major Supporting Sentence (MaSS) (2)
• This is the sentence that directly develop the topic
sentence. NB: There can be more than one major
supporting sentences in a paragraph.
1. I am pursuing higher education for a number of
reasons.
2. One, I want to obtain a good first degree in my area
of study so that I can further to become the
professor I have conceived to be.
Sentence 1: Topic Sentence
Sentence 2: Major supporting Sentence
 Minor Supporting sentence (MiSS) (3)
• It indirectly develops the topic sentence BUT directly develops the
major supporting sentence. NB: There can be more than one MiSS to a
MaSS.
1. I am pursuing higher education for a number of reasons. 2. One,
I want to obtain a good first degree in my area of study so that I
can further to become the professor I have conceived to be. 3. I
want to be an internationally acclaimed professor in pediatrics. 4. I
conceived this vision when I was made to act as a nurse in a sketch
at class five.
Sentence 1: Topic sentence
Sentence 2: Major supporting Sentence
Sentence 3: 1st Minor Supporting Sentence to Sentence 2
Sentence 4: 2nd Minor Supporting sentence to sentence 2
 Concluding sentence (4)
• The concluding sentence mostly is the last sentence in
a paragraph. It’s optional… but good to have one.
• It..
1. re-states the topic sentence in a paragraph
2. summarizes the main views in the body pf the
paragraph
3. may give writer’s final remark on a topic sentence
 Transitional sentence (5)
• It announces the ‘coming’ of the
subsequent paragraph. It’s optional.
• The last sentence of a paragraph (instead of
closing sentence)
• Closes one topic while leading into the next
• Summarize main idea of paragraph and hint
at topic for next one
Paragraph Analysis
Read the TEXTS 1 & 2 carefully
and analyse them into topic
sentence, major supporting,
minor supporting and concluding
sentences. Use the sentence
numbers in your analysis; do not
write the entire sentence.
 Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

1
THE PERIOD BETWEEN 1972 AND 1982 WAS THE DARKEST IN GHANA’S POST-
INDEPENDENCE HISTORY. 2First, it was characterized by political instability.
3
There were as many as five change of government within this period –N. R.
C. (1972), S. M. C. I (1975), S. M. C. II (1978), A. F. R. C. (1979), P. N. P. (1979),
P. N. D. C. (1981). 4In addition, political rulership changed frequently between
different forms of military dictatorship and totalitarianism and liberal
democracy. 5The economy of the country suffered a heavy setback during this
period. 6Inflation was higher than it had ever been. 7Per capita income was
lowest, and there was a serious scarcity of everyday essential commodities.
8
Further, economic malpractice reached an alarming height. 9The depression
of the period was manifested at the social level also. 10Hard-work gave way to
theft and laziness; and prostitution aggravated. 11Honesty gave way to deceit.
12
Ghanaians were taught disobedience, and hate the owners of property and
to punish them for acquiring property. (Source: Sekyi-Baidoo, 2003)
 Paragraph Analysis
• Sentence 1: Topic Sentence
• Sentence 2: 1st Major supporting Sentence
• Sentence 3: 1st Minor Supporting Sentence to sentence 2
• Sentence 4: 2nd Minor Supporting Sentence to sentence 2
• Sentence 5: 2nd Major Supporting Sentence
• Sentence 6: 1st Minor Supporting Sentence to sentence 5
• Sentence 7: 2nd Minor Supporting Sentence to sentence 5
• Sentence 8: 3rd Minor Supporting Sentence to sentence 5
• Sentence 9: 3rd Major Supporting Sentence
• Sentence 10: 1st Minor Supporting Sentence to sentence 9
• Sentence 11: 2nd Minor Supporting Sentence to sentence 9
• Sentence 12: 3rd Minor Supporting Sentence to sentence 9
Two main categories of people exist in this world –troublemakers and trouble-
shooters. 2The former are people who mastermind all the chaos and atrocities
in this world.3 Talk of the two world wars and you will have them around their
remote and immediate causes.4 All the things in this world which are anti-
human are the works of their hands, heads and hearts. 5Examples of these
ungodly activities are human tracking, child abuse, same-sex intercourse, cyber
crimes, armed robbery and the likes. 6It is surprising that even though these
people are God’s creations, they rather do not have the loving spirit of God in
them. 7But thank God for the existence of the other category of people who
aims at transforming what the troublemakers have deformed. 8For instance,
when the troublemakers created virus, they manufactured anti-virus. 9They
help create home for refugees who, due to the nefarious activities of the
troublemakers, are homeless 10Without trouble-shooters, there will be no
‘heavens’ for those who have been made victims in the ‘hells’ created by the
troublemakers. 11Really, they make bitter life better to people. 12Indeed, it is
always good to have an eraser wherever there are pencils.
1
Some scholars maintain that there are two broad causes of climate change.
2
Truly, the earth’s climate is influenced and changed through natural causes.
3
When volcano erupts, it throws out large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO 2),
water vapour, dust, and ash into the atmosphere. 4Although, the volcanic
activity may last for a few days, the large volumes of gases and ash can
influence climatic patterns for years. 5Millions of tonnes of sulphur dioxide
gas can reach the upper levels of the atmosphere (called the atmosphere)
from a major eruption. 6The gases and dust particles partially block the
incoming rays of the sun, leading to cooling. 7 But the world climate is not
only changing through a natural dynamic cycle but also what the world is
worried about is that the change that is occurring today has been speeded up
by human activities. 8So, there are three types of human activities which
contribute to climate change. 9Industrialization is listed by scientists as the
most significant human cause of climate change.10Indeed, climate change can
be said to be a negative consequence of both human-related and natural
factors.
 
1
The discovery of oil in Ghana in commercial quantities is a blessing to all.
2
First, it has provided employment opportunities for many people. 3Many
skilled professionals such as engineers, accountants and managers, as well
many unskilled workers such as labourers and cleaners are gainfully employed
in the various oil drilling companies. 4Apart from these categories of people
who are directly employed in the oil companies, private businessmen, traders
and wayside hawkers alike are also indirectly involved in the oil business.
5
Second, the drilling of oil in Ghana is a major foreign exchange earner for the
country. 6Like gold, cocoa and bauxite, the oil that is sent out of the country
brings in substantial revenue which is used in infrastructural development
such as building of schools, hospitals, and roads. 7In addition, the discovery of
oil in Ghana has made us less-dependent on other oil-producing countries for
our petroleum product needs, thereby saving us costs. 8Finally, every worker
employed directly or indirectly in the oil industry is required by law to pay tax.
9
Such taxes also help in the growth of the economy of the country. 10It is
therefore not surprising that all political regimes Ghana has had have made
efforts to discover oil in commercial quantities.
1
The internet is one of the most useful inventions of our time but, like all useful
things, its abuse can be very worrying. 2The World Wide Web, as it is sometimes
called, serves the triple function of informing, educating and entertaining.3 it is
easy enough to pick the latest news and other happenings around the world in
real time, as well as follow events as they occur. 4The net also makes it possible
for researchers, teachers and students to access the needed information, most
of which is free. 5Teachers, for instance, can use information from the net to put
together their teaching notes while students can also complement what they
learn in class with additional information from the net. 6Social media like
Facebook, Instagram and Twitter also help to connect people around the world
to share ideas and follow their interests. 7The net also provides opportunities
for entertainment where people can watch movies on the net and follow
sporting events including soccer, which most of us are fond of. 8However, many
people, especially young persons, can easily be influenced negatively by some
of the harmful information on the net. 9Sadly, there are many sites that
promote pornography, violence and religious radicalism. 10The internet may be a
blessing, but we must also be mindful of the potential harm it can cause us.
 Strategies for paragraph development

By this we mean how to develop the topic

sentence in a paragraph

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 Definition 1
A number of factors account for why most first
year students boast of enviable CWA after the first
semester. CWA refers to...

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 Explanation 2
A number of factors account for why most first
year students boast of enviable CWA after the first
semester. These factors can classified as social,
academic, financial, emotional or psychological

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 Exemplification 3
For instance, for example, a case is…
A number of factors account for why most first year
students boast of enviable CWA after the first semester.
One of those factors is relative financial stability. Because
their admission fees usually include hostel fees and other
academic user fees, it takes a chunk of what may be
considered as ‘post-first year financial worries’. As result,
they have mental tranquility to undertake their academic
responsibilities which include attending lectures, doing
assignments, etc.
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 Description 4
Appeal to the senses (at least one) of the readers.
One of the factors of teenage pregnancy in postmodern
Ghana is broken home. A ‘home’ as we all know is a place
of peace, belongingness, security, we-feeling, and any
good thing that contribute to a positive self-image of an
individual. But when it is said to be ‘broken’, the ‘can’t be
held and therefore mere anarchy is loose upon the
hitherto abode of joy. Father, who is the head (the
roofing), is therefore disconnected from the mother and
therefore the children are in most cases left to fend for
themselves. Thus,… www.knust.edu.gh
 Compare and contrast 5

This strategy teases out the similarities and

differences by using appropriate conjunctions.
E.g.

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 FAQs

1.How long is a paragraph?

2.Is there a one sentence
paragraph?
3.How does paragraph differ
from paragraphing?

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