Chapter One

Understanding International Relations

1.1. Conceptualizing Nation, State and Nationalism
Definition of Nation
The term “nation” is often used vaguely to mean any
“sovereign state/country” with political autonomy and
settled territory.
That usage represents confusion between the two concepts.
Etymologically, the word nation is derived from the Latin
natio/natus, which mean “the act of being born (birth).”
So, a nation is usually defined as a set of people and tribes.
Natio originally was strongly connected with a term such
as ethnos (a people based on the idea of a common
descent), in contrast to demos (a population defined by
common citizenship).
 Cont’d
Nations are socially constructed entities. Hence,
nations generally consist of people whose sense of
unity is based on something shared by virtue of the
group into which they are born.
A nation is a group of people with a sense of unity
based on the importance the group attributes to a
shared trait, attribute, or custom. A common
language, religion, ethnicity, race, and/or culture are
often the foundations of national identity.
A nation is a community of people joined by a shared
identity and by common social practices.
 Andrew Heywood defines nations as historical entities that
evolve organically out of more similar ethnic communities and
they reveal themselves in myths, legends.
Cont,d
Nations are complex phenomena that are shaped by a
collection of cultural, political, and psychological
factors.
Culturally, a nation is a group of people bound
together by a common language, religion, history, and
traditions, although all nations exhibit some degree of
cultural heterogeneity.
Politically, is a group of people who regard themselves
a nation as ‘natural’ political community, usually
expressed through the desire to establish or maintain
sovereignty.
Psychologically, a nation is a group of people who are
distinguished by a shared loyalty or affection, in the
form of patriotism or ‘belong’ to the nation.
 State
The state is a historical institution: it emerged in
fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Europe as a system of
centralized rule that succeeded in subordinating all other
institutions and groups, temporal and spiritual.
It is a political association that establishes sovereign
jurisdiction within defined territorial borders.
In international politics, state is an entity composed of:
(a)a defined territory demarcated by specific boundaries,
(b) a defined population residing in that territory,
(c) government-an integrated set of institutions that is
capable of making and enforcing laws over this population
and
(d)sovereignty (internal and external).
 Cont’d
 Sovereignty refers to the principle of absolute power.
 The absence of other higher authority in either domestic
or external affairs.
 It refers within a given territory, the government is the
single legitimate authority and no external power has the
right to intervene in actions that take place within
national borders.
Internal sovereignty- refers the ability of making and
enforcing laws within the boundary of the state
(supremacy of the state).
 The state has a supreme authority to make decisions that
are binding on all citizens, groups, and institutions within
the state’s territorial borders.
Cont’d
External sovereignty refers the recognition by
international laws.
It also refers the independence of a state from external
intervention.
It refers the absolute and unlimited authority of the
state as an actor on the world stage, implying the
absence of any higher authority in external affairs.
It refers a state’s relationship to other states and
international actors.
It establishes the state’s capacity to act as an
independent and autonomous entity in world affairs.
 Nation-state
It is originated in Europe and can be traced to the
Treaty of Westphalia (or Peace of Westphalia), which
ended the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.
Along with the emergence of the nation-state, the
Treaty of Westphalia also specified a governmental
order within each of the new states, as well as the
relationship among them.
 Paramount among the concepts that emerged is that
of sovereignty, which means that within a given
territory, the government is the single legitimate
authority and no external power has the right to
intervene in actions that take place within national
borders.
 Nation-state
Nation-state is an autonomous political community
bound together by the overlapping bonds of citizenship
and nationality, meaning that political and cultural
identity coincides(accords, overlaps).
In todays world, the nation-state is more a political ideal
than a reality, as all states are, to some degree, culturally
and ethnically heterogeneous.
 Nationalism
Nationalism is the most influential force in international
affairs.
It has caused the outbreak of revolutions and wars across
the globe.
 It is noted as a factor for the collapse of age old empires,
marker for new borders, a powerful component for the
emergence of new states and it is used to reshape and
reinforce regimes in history.
 Nationalism is the doctrine that asserts the nation as the
basic political unit in organizing society (Heywood, 2014).
Nationalism has been seen as a state of mind of human
beings - a manifestation ideological goals which they wish
to realize through united efforts.
 Nationalism is believed strongly rooted in the, thoughts
and behaviour
Cont’d
Nationalism is:
the ideology or doctrine of nations
the feeling of belonging to a nation
the language or symbolism of a nation
social and political movements on behalf of a
nation
the process through which nations are formed.
Anthony D. Smith
Nationalism: a feeling of strong devotion to one’s country.
Usually people who share a common language and heritage(
history) or even geography. The belief that your nation can
do no wrong ( even if it mean going to war or imperializing)
 1.2. Understanding International Relations (IR)
International Relations (IR) is the study of relationships
among nations/countries.
This definition clearly shows the roles of sovereign states in
the international system.
However, this definition is very narrow since it excludes the
roles of non-state actors in the international politics.
In a broader way, IR can be defined as; all forms of
interactions/ relations made by state and non-state actors.
Hence, IR is the systematic study of all kind of relations
traversing state boundaries, no matter whether they are an
economic, legal, political, or any other character, whether they
are private or official and all human behavior originating on
one side of the state boundary and affecting human behavior
on the other side of the boundary.
 Cont’d
Today, IR used to describe a range of interactions between
people, groups, firms, associations, parties, nations or
states or between these, and (non) governmental
international organizations.
The interaction, usually take place between entities that
exist in different parts of the world – in different territories,
nations or states such as,
 going on holiday abroad,
 sending international mail, or
 buying or selling goods abroad
 choosing an Olympics host or awarding a film
 international conflict
 inter-national conferences on global warming
 international crime
 1.3. Actors in IR
Actors are all the interacting entities interact in the
international system.
The types of their interaction may be;
 Harmony- when actors’ interests coincide.
 Coordination- Actors more interested in choosing the
same strategy than in choosing any other strategy.
 Cooperation- it is mutual adjustment of policy.
 It benefits both actors, but not always equally.
 Conflict- it results from mutually incompatible preferences.
But not always violent.
Therefore, broadly speaking, actors can be classified as
state actors and non-state actors.
 Cont’d
1) State Actors
Refers sovereign countries.
They are the primary actors in international relations (e.g.
states like Ethiopia, Kenya, US, etc.)
2) Non-state Actors
Non state actors are non-sovereign entities that exercise
significant economic, political, or social power and
influence at a national, and/or international level.
They may share some but not all of the characteristics of
states (sub-state actors), or incorporate two or more states
in a new entity.
It includes Inter-governmental Organizations (IGOs),
Multinational Corporations (MNCs), and Transnational
Organizations , Non-governmental Organizations(NGOs).
 Cont’d
a) Inter-Governmental Organizations (IGOs) – are
institutions formed by states with formal membership
and procedures.
States are members.
Membership can be limited or universal
Purpose may be broad or narrow.
E.g. African Union (AU) with limited membership
and broad purposes
United Nations (UN) universal membership and
broad purposes
 Cont’d
b) Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
These are business corporations that seek to make a profit
by engaging in foreign production, marketing, finance, and
staffing through directly controlled affiliates located in
several states.
Examples of MNCs- Coca-Cola, Sony, Nike, etc.
c) Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) – it is
broad category.
It includes religious institutions, charity organizations,
political activists, academic research communities, and
terrorist groups.
E.g. International Red Cross Society, Doctors Without
Borders, etc.
 Cont’d
d) Transnational Interest Groups
Are non-state actors with a certain interest at
international level.
Example: Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch,
Greenpeace, etc.
 Levels of Analysis in International
Relations
Levels of analysis are the main units to explain and
predict how international relations is affected by
these units.
 Analyzes how international relations is affected by
different units.
There are four levels of analysis to explain and predict
international relations. These are;
a)Individual level
b)Group level
c) State level and
d)System level
 Levels of Analysis
a) Individual Level Analysis
 International relations can be analyzed from the
perspective of individuals.
 Individuals are the main units of analysis.
 We can look at the;
 behaviors,
 motivations,
 Personal beliefs,
 experiences or backgrounds, and
 orientation of individuals

 This can be seen in the psychology and emotions

behind people‘s actions and decisions, their fears and
their visions as well as their access to information and
capacity to make a difference.
Cont’d
Therefore, we can analyze how these personal
perspectives affect international relations/ international
phenomenon.
Example: Decisions made by a leader of a state.
 A Prime Minister, encountering the leader of another
state to negotiate an important financial agreement, the
head of a large corporation adopting a policy to
rescue(save) their business or even the situation of
individual citizens and their attitude towards severity of
measures.
 Levels of Analysis
b) Group Level Analysis
Groups are the main units of analysis
Groups can be; interest groups, political
organizations, group of lobbyists, etc.
For instance, we can look at;
The role of these groups
The way they influence national decision-making
on an issue.
The way group decisions determines the
international relations of states
 Levels of Analysis
c) State Level Analysis
Individual states are the main focus
The state is the dominate unit of analysis.
For instance, we can analyze:
How states interact with each other to deal with their
foreign policy?
How they build off each other’s decisions and
suggestions react to international developments and
trends?
How they cooperate, say, in the framework of
international organizations?
Nature/ type of relations among states –Cooperative
or competitors or antagonists?
 Levels of Analysis
A state-level study would also require careful
consideration of what kinds of states we are looking
at?
Hence, we may look at factors which may determine
the foreign policy and international relations of states,
such as:
geographical and strategic factors (such as size of
the state, geographical position of the state-
landlocked or access to the Sea)
Level of economy or type of economy
(economically advanced vs poor; agrarian vs
industrialized)
 Levels of Analysis
military capacity (size and quality of the
armed forces- strong military capacity or
weak)
organizational and administrative factors
(form/ nature of government)
demographic factors (size of population and
ethnic circumstances)
historical ties and experiences
 Levels of Analysis
d) System Level Analysis
The system level perspective would like to conceive the
global system as the structure or context within which states
 cooperate
 compete and
 confront each other over issues of national interest.
It is global (system) level- the Wider picture.
We can grasp the wide-ranging dynamics that emerge from
the global ‘system’ that affect its various components, states,
national economies, societies, individuals.

Global circumstances are seen to condition the ability and

opportunity of individual states and groups of states to pursue
their interests in cooperative or competitive ways.
Cont’d
A system-level study would need to consider global
linkages that go beyond single interactions between
states.
It would need to look at such things as the balance of
power between states and how that determines what
happens in global politics.
This could include developments that are even outside
the immediate control of any particular state or group of
states, such as the global economy, transnational
terrorism or the internet.
 It gives us the big picture and help us to grasp wide
ranging dynamics that emerge from the global economic
system‘ to affect its various components, states, national
economies, societies, and individuals.
 Levels of Analysis
Generally, at this level we can explain how
global trends and forces (such as distribution of
power, technological change and the global
environment, etc.) affect international relations.

Example: How Bipolarity (during the Cold War

period) affects states foreign policy between
USSR and USA?
The Structure of International System
International Relations scholars maintain that
political power is usually distributed into three main
systems
 Uni-polar system
 Bi-polar system and,

 Multi-polar system.

These three different systems reflect the number of

powerful states competing for power and their
hierarchical relationship.
In a Uni-polar international system, there is one state
with the greatest political, economic, cultural and
military power and hence the ability to totally control
other states.
 In Bipolar system, there are two dominant states (super
powers) and the less powerful states join either sides
through alliance and counter alliance formations.
 The problem with bipolar system is that it is
vulnerable for zero-sum game politics because when
one superpower gains the other would inevitably lose.
 Example the cold war period between USSR and
USA.
 Multipolar system is the most common throughout
history.
 It was a typical system During the period around
World War I.
 It usually reflects various equally powerful states
competing for power
 It is not necessary for states to change their relationship
with zero-sum game.
 In such system, it is possible to bring change without
gaining or losing power.
 In both Bipolar and Multipolar systems, there is no one
single state with a preponderant (greater) power and
hence ability to control other states
 The states in such systems are forced to balance each
other‘s power
 Theories of International Relations
Mainstream Theories
Realism
 Liberalism (Idealism)
 Realism I
No single theory reliably explains the wide range of
international interactions, but one theoretical
framework has historically held a central position in
the study of IR.
This approach, called realism.
Realism (or political realism) is a school of thought
that explains international relations in terms of power.
Pessimism about cooperation, IGOs, and international
law; guard state sovereignty against supranational
authority
Basic assumptions
1. Anarchy- the international system is anarchic in
realm.
Unlike domestic politics, there is no overarching
power to enforce laws or punish aggressive behavior
Cont’d
An international system as an anarchic “self-help”
system Anarchy
Anarchy is a situation where there is absence of
authority (government) be it in national or
international/global level systems.
 Within a country anarchy‘ refers to a breakdown of
law and order, but in relations between states it refers
to a system where power is decentralized and there are
no shared institutions with the right to enforce
common rules.
 An anarchical world is a world where everyone looks
after themselves and no one looks after the system as a
whole.
Cont’d
Instead, states had to rely on their own resources or to
form alliances through which the power of one alliance
of states could be balanced against the power of another
alliance.

Key thinkers: Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes,

Morgenthau, Kissinger, Waltz
2. Statism- states are the unitary actors in IR
 Realism
3. Survival- states act to maintain or increase
their power in order to protect national interest
and ensure survival.
Security Dilemma- Power is the only thing to
ensure security
4. Self-help- since there in no any
overarching(all embracing) power in the system,
states must provide help for themselves.
5. Zero-Sum Game- ones gain is a lose for others
 Realism
Implications for worldview
Competition and conflict are inherent
dimensions of international relations.

Morality is not worth-full- State leaders cannot

be tightly bound by ethical constraints in IR

States must only strategically use their

resources to maximize their power and advance
interests.
 Realism
Implications for worldview
Cooperation is impossible in the anarchic
system
International laws are not effective.

International organizations are also tools

used/controlled by powerful states.
 Classical Realism vs Structural/ Neo-
Realism

Classical Realism
Draw upon the assumption of T. Hobbess and N.
Machiavelli

Competitive and conflictual nature of the

international system rooted in “Human nature”-
man is selfish-self-interested, hence, states acts in
this way.

Uncertainty derives fear, suspicion, distrust, etc.

 Structural Realism/ Neo-Realism
Argue that it is not “human nature” but the
structure of the international system (anarchy)
that makes conflict

Amidst conditions of uncertainty and anarchy, it

is rational for states to act in order to maximize
their power

Certain configurations of power in the

international system will produce different results
in terms of stability and state interaction
 Structural Realism/ Neo-Realism
In other words, the “polarity” of the
international system (i.e, the number of major
powers) will have significant effects on its
overall character and level of stability.

For instance,
Under unipolar system(the presence of a
single major power) the international system
becomes unstable (Eg. the Post-cold War
period)
 Structural Realism/ Neo-Realism

Under bipolarity system(the presence of two

major powers) the international system
becomes stable (Eg. the Cold War period-
1950s-1970s)

Under the multi polar system(the presence

of a more than two major powers) the
international system becomes unstable (Eg.
the concert of Europe between 1815-1914)
 Liberalism
Basic Assumptions
Progress/change- possibility for significant
change in the character of international
relations over time.
Non-uniformity of states- unlike realism,
liberals argue that states do not behave
according to a singular logic
States have different interests and they
pursue their interests in different ways-
through cooperation or in another way
 Liberalism
Cooperation- unlike realists (which are
skeptical(doubtful) of cooperation), liberals
believe that prolonged cooperation is possible
among states in the international system and
can serve state interest

International institutions and laws- states

agreeing to be mutually bound by international
agreements and treaties can introduce
regularity and predictability in international
politics (institutions and laws shapes state
behavior)
 Liberalism

Predictability and cooperation can be gained in

IR through repeated political and economic
cooperation- leads to the creation of
interdependence

Structures of laws create “global governance”

(regulation and coordination of transnational
issues by states, international, and regional
organizations through establishment of
international regimes) even in the absence of
global government.
 Liberalism
States who defy (challenge) global community
and isolate themselves from international
interaction are threats to international peace
and cooperation
 Classical Liberalism vs. Neo-liberalism
a) Classical Liberalism
It is rooted in the values and ideals of
Enlightenment (I. Kant, J. Locke, and J.
Bentham)
International politics should foster free trade
and enhanced global commerce which creates
interdependence

Based on “democratic peace thesis”- the idea

that countries with democratic systems rarely
go to war with one another
 Classical Liberalism vs. Neo-liberalism
Neo-liberalism
Global commerce and democratic systems can
create incentives for cooperation and stability
but it is not automatic

Like neo-realism, neo-liberals believe that the

international system dictates/shapes state
behavior

But, unlike neo-realists, neo-liberals are too

optimistic in the possibility of cooperation
Case Study
 Chapter Two
Understanding Foreign Policy and
Diplomacy
What is Foreign Policy?
It is the intentions, statements, and
actions of an actor (often a state)
directed toward the external world and
the response of other actors to these
intentions, statements and actions
(Deborah Gerner )
Foreign policy is a nation’s protocol for
making and maintaining relations with
foreign countries.
 Cont’d
It refers to the nation’s international goals and its
strategies to achieve those goals.

It is the articulation (expression) of national interests

(material and ideational interests) and the means to
secure those interests in the international arena (Lamy et
al.).

It refers the programs and policies that determine state’s

relations with other nations and foreign entities.
 Cont’d
The foreign policy of each nation is formulated
on the basis of its national interest and it is
always at work for securing its goals.

National Interest
National Interest’ is a key concept in
International Relations.
It is the claims, objectives, goals, demands and
interests which a nation always tries to preserve,
protect, defend and secure in relations with other
nations.
It is what states seek to protect or achieve in
relation to each other.
 Cont’d
What is best for a particular nation;
Anything that is good or beneficial for a nation or that
gives it an advantage;
A nation’s most vital needs or goals;

 It is the general, long term and continuing purpose

which the state, the nation, and the government all see
themselves as serving. —Charles Lerche and Abdul

It is “What a nation feels to be necessary to its security

and well being … National interest reflects the general
and continuing ends for which a nation acts.” —
Brookings Institution
Cont’d
The values, desires and interests which states seek to
protect or achieve in relation to each other” “desires on
the part of sovereign states”. —V.V. Dyke

National interests commonly include:

Self preservation (primary duty of any government)
Independence (Sovereignty)
Economic well-being
Military security or
Cont’d
•Components of National Interest based on content
Security Interests Economic Interests Ideological Interests
include such things include such things as: Include such things as:
as:
 protecting national  protecting and/or  protecting and/or
borders. promoting an adequate promoting a just/moral
 ensuring the safety standard of living for way of life
of citizens from domestic citizens
harm by foreign  protecting and/or
enemies  protecting and/or promoting a just/moral
 protecting allies. promoting adequate system of politics, law,
 protecting areas of levels of domestic and government
military importance employment
(military supply
routes, allies that  ensuring economic  protecting and/or
host military bases, development and promoting a just/moral
etc.) growth economic system
 protecting bases and
sources of national  establishing trade
power relations with other
nations
 Foreign Policy Objectives
Foreign policy objectives can be classified as
 core/short term,
 middle term and
 long term goals and objectives.
This classification is based on:
(1)the value placed on the objective;
(2) the time element placed on its
achievement; and
(3) the kind of demands(needs) the objective
imposes on other states in international
system.
 1. Short-range Objectives
These are core/vital interests and values of a state.
These are interests in which no nation can compromise.
They are essential for the survival of a state.
It is the primary objective of any states’ foreign policy to
ensure the sovereignty and territorial integrity.
 Other goals cannot be achieved unless the state maintains
its existence.
 It is also called core values and interests.
 It stands for goals which most people are willing to make
an ultimate sacrifice.
 e.g. self preservation of the state
 a state has to defend these at all costs.
Cont’d
It includes the preservation of physical, political and
cultural security/identity against possible
encroachments(intrusion) by other states.

Physical identity includes territorial identity.

Political identity means politico- economic system.

 Cultural identity stands for historical values that are

upheld by a nation as part of its cultural heritage.
 2. Middle-range Objectives
Varies across states due to the difference in the level of
economic, technological progress, and military capability.
It can be seen in three ways.
The first one is governments attempt to meet economic
development and social welfare.
 E.g. promoting international trade, encouraging foreign
investment and citizen’s access to communication.
The second one is to increase states’ prestige in the
international system.
 Cont’d
This may be measured by the level of the industrial
development, scientific and technological skill like
nuclear capacity, and distribution of the foreign aid for
the developing countries.

The last one is self-extension/imperialism.

The state undertakes foreign policy to promote its own
socio-economic and political ideologies over other
state/states.
Generally, at this stage almost all states needs to achieve
Prosperity, Peace, Ideology, Justice, Power, Prestige, and
Aggrandizement(boasting).
 3. Long-range Objectives
They are plans, dreams, and visions concerning the
ultimate political or ideological organization of the
international system.
Here, the purpose is to reconstruct the entire
international system according to states plan/vision.
 Unlike middle-range objectives, long range goals
have not time bounded.

In middle range goals, states make particular

demands against particular interest.

But in pursuing long range goals, states normally

make universal demands
 Foreign Policy Behaviors
It refers to the actions states take towards
each other.
According to Arnold Wolfers, all foreign
policy behavior ultimately boils down to three
possible patterns:
(1)self-preservation (maintaining the status
quo);
(2)self-extension (revising the status quo in
one‘s own favor); and
(3)self-abnegation (revising the status quo in
some else‘s favor).
 Foreign Policy Dimensions/Orientations
These are outlooks, approaches and strategies
that states adopt or act to choose to interact
to the outside world.

The following conditions impacts the foreign

policy dimensions of states.
1)The structure of the international system- the
patterns of dominance, subordination and
leadership of an international system
2)The nature of states domestic attitudes and
social and economic needs.
 Foreign Policy Dimensions/Orientations
3) The extent to which policy makers
perceive a persisting external threat to their
own values and interests

4) State’s geographical location-

topographical characteristics and
endowment (gift) in natural resources can
often be linked to its choice of orientations.
 Foreign Policy Dimensions/Orientations
a) Alignment
 States may seek to construct diplomatic
relations or alliances(partnership) when
they assume that they cannot achieve their
objectives, defend their interests or deter
perceived threat by mobilizing their own
capabilities.
 Hence, states with common problems and
common enemies generally make
diplomatic and military alliances (coalition
or partnership)
 Foreign Policy Dimensions/Orientations
b) Isolation
It is a desire to avoid involvement in the
affairs of other nations.

It can be pursued when states assume

that it can gain security and independence
by reducing transactions with other units in
the system or
Cont’d
States may adopt this policy dimension in view
of the topographical characteristics, freedom of
action, freedom from international complication
and tension and economic necessity.

It is a means of minimizing relations to avoid

the pitfalls(downsides) from international
interest. But not fully isolating from any
interactions
 Foreign Policy Dimensions/Orientations
c) Non-alignment
Emerged after 1945.
It is an independent policy (not to
associate one self with the so called
communist and non-communist blocs).
 It is a policy of keeping out of alliances
(the assumption is that alliance or counter
alliance may breed tension and ultimately
lead to disaster).
Cont’d
It is a movement mostly held by the developing
countries, as Non -Alignment Movement (NAM) in
which they called for a new foreign policy path/choice/
to be followed disregarding both the West and East bloc
politics and alliances.
 Instruments of Foreign Policy
1) Diplomacy
It is formal or informal
discussions/negotiations aimed at resolving
matters of mutual concern.
It is the act of dealing with other nations,
usually through negotiation and discussion
 Meetings between leaders
 Diplomatic messages
World Organizations (NATO, United Nations)
It can take place at a bilateral level or
multilateral level.
It is the most commonly used instrument.
Cont’d
It is a universally accepted means for securing national
interests.
It is through diplomacy that the foreign policy of a state
is conducted.
It seeks to secure the goals of national interests.

Diplomatic negotiations are used to reconcile the

divergent national interests of states through the process
of “mutual give and take”.
Diplomats establish contacts with the decision-makers
and diplomats of other nations and conduct negotiations
for achieving the desired goals and objectives of national
interests of their states.
 Cont’d
Diplomats use persuasion and threats, rewards and threats
of denial of rewards as means for exercising power and
securing goals of national interest.
Approaches to Diplomacy
Unilaterally: Nation acts alone without the
assistance or consent of other nations
Bilaterally: Nation works in conjunction with
another nation (between two states through
permanent missions)
 Multilaterally: Nation works in conjunction with
several nations (involving a number of states).
Rules of Effective Diplomacy
Be realistic: It is important to have goals that much your
ability to achieve them.
Be careful about what you say: The experienced
diplomats plans out and weighs words carefully.
Seek common ground: Dispute begins negotiations;
finds common ground ends them successfully.
 Almost any negotiation will involve some concession,
so it is important to maintain a degree of flexibility.
Understand the other side: There are several aspects to
understanding the other side.
One is to appreciate an opponent‘s perspective even if
you do not agree with it.
Cont’d
Be patient: it is also important to bide your time.
Being overly anxious can lead to concessions that are
unwise and may convey weakness to an opponent.

Leave avenues(opportunities) of retreat(withdrawal)

open: it is axiomatic that even a rat will fight if trapped
in a corner.
The same is often true for countries.
 Call it honor, saving face, or prestige; it is important
to leave yourself and your opponent an out.
Cont’d
In general, states make considerable use of what are
known to be carrot and stick approaches when they rely
on such diplomatic tactics such as threats, punishment,
promise, and rewards.

Threats and punishment represent the stick approach,

the former involving some hypothetical action and the
latter area action.
Cont’d
The other two tactics (promise and reward) represent
the carrot approach.

These also involve hypothetical and real action.

 Promise is a hypothetical action which aims at
influencing the behaviors of state B based on the future
hope of giving something.
 But reward is a promise in action.
 It is when state A gives reward to state B in advance
or based on the promise done in the past.
 Instruments of Foreign Policy
2) Propaganda
It is the second important method for securing
national interest.
It is a systematic attempt to affect the minds,
emotions and actions of a given group for a specific
public purpose.
Propaganda is the art of salesmanship (precise, explicit).
 It is the art of convincing others about the justness of
the goals and objectives or ends which are desired to be
secured.
It consists of the attempt to impress upon nations the
necessity of securing the goals which a nation wishes to
achieve.
 Instruments of Foreign Policy
3) Economic Means
Economic instruments can be used to achieve the
foreign policy of objective of a state.
The rich and developed nations use economic aid and
loans as the means for securing their interests in
international relations.
The existence of a very wide gap between the rich and
poor countries provides a big opportunity to the rich
nations for promoting their interest’s vis-a-vis the poor
nations.
In this era of Globalization, conducting international
economic relation has emerged as a key means of
national interests.
 Cont’d
States may reward or punish states through the
manipulation of economic policies.
Economic Aid- Nations donating or loaning money to
other countries to boost(increase) economic
development
 Money is a powerful tool
 Some of these economic instruments are: tariffs,
quotas, boycotts, embargos, and aid.
a)Tariff
It is a tax imposed on foreign made products coming
into a country for the purpose of raising revenue,
protecting domestic producers from foreign
competition, or other domestic economic reasons.
Cont’d
The tariff structure can be used effectively as an
inducement or punishment when a country
stands to gain or lose important markets for its
products by its upward and down ward
manipulation
 Cont’d
b) Quota
It is a restriction on imported goods.
To control imports of some commodities,
governments may establish quotas rather than tariffs
(tariffs may of course be applied to the items enter
under quota).

Under such arrangement, the supplier usually sends his

goods into the country at a favorable price, but is
allowed to sell only a certain amount in a given time
period.
 Cont’d
c) Boycott(refuse)
A trade boycott organized by a government eliminates
the import of either a specific commodity or the total
range of export products sold by the country against
which the boycott is organized.
Governments that don‘t engage in state trading
normally enforce boycotts by requiring private
importers to secure licenses to purchase any
commodities from the boycotted country.
If the importer doesn‘t comply (fulfill) with these
requirements, any goods purchased abroad can be
confiscated(removed).
 Cont’d
d) Embargo
A government that seeks to deprive another country
goods prohibits(forbids) its own business men from
concluding its transactions with commercial
organization in the country against which the embargo
is organized.
An embargo (restriction, ban) may be enforced either
on specific category of goods, such as strategic materials,
or on the total range of goods that private businessmen
normally send to the country being punished.
 Cont’d
e) Loans and Currency Manipulations
It may include favorable tariff rates and quotas,
granting loans (favorable reward offered by the major
powers to developing countries) or extending credits.
The manipulation of currency rates is also used to
create more or less favorable terms of trade between
countries.
e) Foreign Aid
The transfer of money, goods, or technical advice from
donor to recipient-is an instrument of policy that has
been in international relation.
It may include, military aid, technical assistance, grants
and commodity import program, and development loans.
Cont’d
Military Aid- Nations donating, selling, or trading
military equipment and technology to impact the
military balance of power
 Cont’d
4) Coercive Means
It is the use of hard power.
It is an unwritten law of international intercourse that
nations can use force for securing their national
interests.
International Law also recognizes coercive means
short of war as the methods that can be used by states
for fulfilling their desired goals and objectives.
Intervention, Non-intercourse, embargoes, boycotts,
reprisals, restoration, retaliation(revenge),
severance(compensation) of relations and pacific
biocides(soothing, calming) are the popular coercive
means which can be used by a nation to force others to accept a
particular course of behavior or to refrain from a course
Cont’d
Deterrence- building up military force as a threat
to warn another state not to pursue a particular
course of action
Example: Syrian and the use of chemical
weapons.
 Cont’d
5) Alliances and Treaties
Alliances and Treaties are concluded by two or more
states for securing their common interests.
This device is mostly used for securing identical and
complementary interests.
However, even conflictual interests may lead to
alliances and treaties with like-minded states against the
common rivals or opponents.
Alliances are either military or economic in nature.
Example: The need for securing the security of
capitalist democratic states against the expanding
‘communist menace’(threat) led to the creation of
military alliances like NATO, SEATO, CENTO, etc