English

Semantics
Chapter 11
Contents
11.1 Factivity 230

11.2 Implicative predicates 233

11.3 Modality 239

Group members

 Ashin Wiyosana 3069

 Paponson 3066
 Nyarnorbarda 1063
 Mr. Harka Bahadur 3082
11.1 Factivity

Factive
Means that the predication is presented
linguistically as being true.
3 Types of factive

 Factive
 Nonfactive
 Counterfactive
Factive
Example;

1a We fotgot that the meeting was canceled.

The meeting was canceled. p>>q

1b We didn’t forget that the meeting was canceled.

The meeting was canceled. ∼p>>q
1. My friends resent/don’t resent my decision.
p >> q ∼p >> q

2. It’s (not) suprising that the baby woke up.

p >> q ∼p >> q
The factive predicates are followed by full clauses. Some factive
predicates can be followed by gerund clauses or a deverbal noun
like :
decision, organization, joining, and saying etc….

Gerund : verb + ing

coming, crying, and walking etc…

Note; In chapter 8, page 163.

Nonfactive
Example;

American people believe that an apple a day keeps the

doctor away.
p >> ?

It’s likely that the bank will open again.

p >> ?
Nonfactive: They have a predication as one of

their arguments but, whether

affirmative or negative, they do not assert the

truth of that predication.

Counterfactive
Example;
I would have enjoyed reading that book.
>> I didn’t read that book.
p >> ∼q

I wouldn’t have enjoyed reading that book.

>> I didn’t read that book.
∼p >> ∼q
Counterfactive: whether affirmative or negative,
it carries the presupposition that the following
predication is not true.

And any verb can be counterfactive if used with

the auxiliary verb or helping verbs would have.
 Test your understanding!
1. Jack said that the teacher was sick. F
p >> q
2. They hoped that they can buy a house. N
p >> ?
3. The students don’t wish they could got A plus. C
∼p >> ∼q
 To summarize, where “p” indicates an affirmative predicate,

“∼p” is a negative predicate, “q” is a true proposition, and

“∼q” a proposition that is not true:

Factive p >> q ∼p >> q

Counterfactive p >> ∼q ∼p >> ∼q
Nonfactive p >> ? ∼p >> ?
11.2 Implicative predicates

Some predicates do not presuppose the truth of a proposition that oc-

curs as one of their arguments but carry some
implication about the truth or non-truth of the proposition
an interesting variety of implications and can recognize
different kinds of implicative predicates (called conditional
factives).
 There are some groups of predicates according to what
they imply about the truth value of included clause.

Group1
Affirmative implies affirmative and negative implies
negative.

Example:
a. We happened/chanced to see your brother.
b. We saw your brother .
Group 2
Affirmative implies negative that the embedded proposition
is not
true and negative has an affirmative implication that the
embedded proposition is true.

Example:
a. We didn't neglect/fail to make reservations
b. We made reservations
Group 3

Example:
a. Henry acknowledged/admitted starting the fire.
⇢ Henry started the fire.
b. Henry didn't acknowledged/ admitted starting the fire. ⇢?

b. Circumtances forced us to cancel our plans.

⇢ We canceled our plans.

b. Circumstances forced us to cancle our plans.

Group 4
Affirmative implies negative but negative has no implication.

Example:
a. Mary pretended to be sleep. ⇢Mary was not sleep.

b. Mary didn't pretend to be sleep. ⇢?

a. We forgot to make reservations.

⇢ We didn't make the reservation.

b. We didn't forget to make reservation. ⇢?

Group 5
Affirmative has no implication, while the negative implies negative.

Example:

a. We tried to answer. ⇢? (did we answer?)

b. We didn't try to answer. ⇢ We didn't answer.

Group 6
Affirmative implies nothing, negative implies affirmative.

Example:
a. Joel denied drawing the caricature. ⇢ ? (did he draw it?)
b. Joel didn't deny drawing the caricature.
⇢ Joel draw the caricature.
When an embedded proposition is expressed as a full clause,
implication is less easy to state because the truth value of that
clause (or its proposition) depends on a number of factors:
whether the subject of the clause is the same as the subject
of the main verb. And whether the embedded clause has
definite or indefinite.
11.3 Modality

Talk about factual matters-what is true and what is not true,

what has happened and what has not happened-but we also talk about
what may be true or not, what ought to be and what ought not to be,
what certain individuals are capable of and what is impossible for them,
what obligations we have to do or to refrain from doing. All these no-
tions together constitute modality.
Modality can be expressed in nouns like duty, likelihood, etc.
In adjectives like necessary, possible etc.
In adverbs like obviously, perhaps and probably etc.
 
Modal verbs: can, could, may, might, will, would, must, should,
out, need, have to, have, got to etc.
Examples of modality:
1.It's your duty to visit your ailing parents.
2.You ought to visit your ailing parents.
= Duty what you out to do

1.Jessica is possibly at home now.

2.Jessica may be at home now.
= Possibility: What may be
1. If you expect to win, you must train very hard.
= Obligation, statement is prospective.

2. If you have won so many races, you must

train very hard.
= Probability
Turn next to the possibility, impossibility and degrees of
Probability

As facts:
1.Driving a car in a heavy rainstorm is dangerous = Modal verbs
modify this truth.

2.Driving in a heavy rainstorm can be dangerous = Possible fact

3.Driving in a heavy rainstorm may be dangerous
= Possibility of fact

4.Driving in a heavy rainstorm might be dangerous

= Possibility of fact

5.Driving in a heavy rainstorm must be dangerous

= Is an inference
As non-facts:
1.Stanley is not busy now. = Impossible

2.Stanley may not be busy now = Possibility of being busy

3.Stanley might not be busy now = Possibility of being busy

4.Stanley must not be busy now = High probability being busy

5.Stanley can't be busy now = Impossible

Contents
A variety of predicates

12.1 Attitudinal predicates

12.2 Enabling and Preventing
12.3 Perceptual predicates
12.1 Attitudinal predicates
Attitudinal predicates: These express mental states that
people have about their past experiences and possible
future ones and general feelings about likes, dislikes and
preferences.

An attitudinal predicate is a verb or adjective that expresses

the feeling of the subject: Ex. I hate this music, I'm fond of
swimming etc.
Examples
1. Intent regarding one's own possible performance
= Jenkins intends to withdraw from the race.
Verbs: aim, mean, intend

intend

affected S-theme

Jenkins agent predicate

Jenkins withdraw
Aspect prospective
2. Getting ready for performance
= Jenkins planned to withdraw from the race.
= Jenkins planned for his supporters to withdraw
his name.
Verbs: arrange, plan, prepare
Structure is the same as 1.
3. Attitude regarding another's input
= I'm counting on you to help us.
Verbs: count-on, depend-on, rely-on, trust

Count-on

affected S-theme
agent predicate
I
you help....
4. Retrospective attitudes
= I regret wasting time on that lecture.
Verbs: miss, regret' resent

regret

affected S-theme

I agent predicate

waste....
I
Aspect: retrospective
5. Attitudinal predicates = I admire you for your courage,
but I pity you for your stubbornness.
Verbs: positive: admire approve-of cherish honor prize respect
Negative: pity resent scorn
admire-for

affected affecting S-theme

you theme predicate

I

you coura-
Aspect: neutral geous
12.2 Enabling and Preventing
Enabling predicate is a verb or adjective which tells that
the following predication is made possible.
Ex. We allowed the car to pass.

Three types of Enabling predicate:

authority, effort or action, and
instruction.
A. Enbling by use of authority:
-Ashin’s teacher allowed him to come late to class.
Verbs: allow, authorize, permit

allow

agent affected S-theme

teacher Heary agent predicate

Henry come …
B. Enabling by effort or action:
- Henry helped his teacher (to) distribute books.
verbs: assist, help

C. Enabling by instruction:
- Henry taught his dog to roll over and play dead.
verbs: instruct, teach, train
Preventing
Preventing predicate is a verb which states that an agent
causes the non-occurrence of the prediaction that follows.
Ex. I kept the ball from rolling away.

Three types of preventing predicates: authority, effort, speech.

A. Preventing by use of authority:

- Ashin’s teacher forbade him to leave the room.
verbs: forbid, prohibit.
B. Preventing through effort:
-Ashin’s teacher kept him from leaving the room.
verbs: bar, block, curb, deter, hinder, keep
C. Preventing through speech:
-Ashin’s teacher discouraged him from entering the contest.
verbs: discourage, inhibit

D. Preventing through protection:

- The police protect the money from being stolen.
verbs: defend, protect

E. Preventing through self-prevention:

- Jone is abstaining from drinking, these days.
verbs: abstain, refrain
12.3 Perceptual predicates
Perceptual verbs, also called ‘sensory verbs,’ express the
sensations that we receive from outside stimuli through
our five senses.
Perceptual
predicates Example:
1) We saw some pen-
guins.

2) We looked at the penguins.

3) The penguins looked strange to us.

Conclusion
Chapter 11
11.1 Factivity
11.2 Implicative predicates
11.3 Modality

Chapter 12
12.1 Attitudinal predicates
12.2 Enabling and Preventing
12.3 Perceptual predicates