PIASS

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEP.OF SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

MODULE:PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
UNIT2: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 2
 DETAILED CONTENT

CHI:INFUENCE OF ROCKS ON LANDFORMS

1.1.Rocks and their land form
1.2.Weathering

1.3.types of slopes
1.4.Mass movement/Mass wasting
CH2.DRAINAGE
2.1.Introduction
2.2.Types of drainage patterns
2.3.Types of acquifers
2.4.Water balance concept
 CONT’D

CH3.SOILS
3.1.Definition
3.2.Constitutuents
3.3.Formation
3.4.Classification
3.5.Distribution
 CONT’D
CH4.CLIMATOLOGY

4.1.General circulation
4.2.Heat movement
4.3.Pressure and thermal structure
4.4.Climate classification
 CONT’D

CH5.ECOSYSTEMS
5.1.Definition
5.2.Major world ecosystems
5.3.Energy flow and niche concept
 LEARNING OUTCOME

• Having successfully completed the module, student should be able

to:
• Understand the key concepts and theories of Physical Geography.
• Explain the influence of rocks on land form.
• Draw and explain the new landform formed during volcanic eruption
and in limestone area..
CONT’D

• Analyze the weathering process and process of soil

formation.
• Determine the causes of climate change and analyze the
strategies for climate regulation.
• Analyze, how types of climates determine the types of
vegetation found on level of the world
CONT’D

• FOR THE COMPONENT THE FOLLOWING CRITERIA

WILL BE USED:
• MAIN(FINAL EXAM) : 40% OF MARKS
• CAT: 30% OF MARKS
.ASSIGNMENT: 30% OF MARKS

• COMPONENT MARKS= 100 Marks

 CHI. INFLUENCE OF ROCKS ON LANDFORMS

• DEFINITION
• Geologists define rocks as aggregates of minerals that make up the
crust/lithosphere. They are grouping of minerals know as
conglomeration.
• Mineral is naturally formed inorganic substances(non living
matter)which process a definite chemical composition, structure,
form, density. Rocks are naturally formed. Common minerals
include quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, olivine, and calcite.
ELEMENTS CONSTITUENT
MINERALS

MINERAL ELEMENTS
• QUARTZ -Silicon and oxygen
• MICA -Potassium, magnesium,
silicon, aluminium.
• FELDSPAR -Potassium, magnesium,
silicon, Aluminium.

• ClAY MINERALS -Complex silicates.

 SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF
ROCKS

• They are hard and weighty (missives')

• They have joints.
• Some rocks are permeable while others are recent
• They have different shapes.
• Some rocks were formed along time ago while others are recent.
• Definite chemical composition
• Some rocks have order bur other do not .
• They are igneous, sedimentary ,metamorphic rocks
CONT’D
 CONT’D

• The nature of rocks( lithology) influence the relief to be formed:

• A.INTRUSIVE VOLCANIC FEATURES/IGNEOUS ROCKS
• They are land forms which form when magma does not find its way to reach
the surface and it cools and solidifies in crust.
• Batholith: this a very large amount of magma solidified.
• Laccolith:This is a dome shaped intrusive feature having a root.
• Lapolith : intrusive magmatic landform having a depression on top of it.
• Dykes: They are vertical on inclined intrusion cutting across the bedding planes
and form very strong stones walls.
• Sills: Intrusive magmatic mass cooled horizontally between soil layers.
VOLCANIC ERUPTION
INTRUSIVE AND EXTRUSIVE FEAUTURES
 B.EXTRUCTIVE VOLCANIC
LANDFORMS
• The following different landforms result from extrusive vulcanicity:
• Lava plateau
• Crater
• Ash and cinder cone
• Volcanic plug
• Hot spring
• Geyser
• Volcano
C. RIFT VALLEY FORMATION,
ESCARPMENT FAULTING LAVA PLATEAU

• Rift valley :are long, deep valleys bounded by faults.

They form where Earth’s crust is being pulled apart. Rift
valleys can appear on land or beneath bodies of water.
• Remarks
• Volcanic phasis : three volcanic phasis can be
distinguished: Active volcanoes, dormant volcanoes.
• Active volcanoes: These ones show some sign of activity:
pushing out smoke, Eruption
FORMATION OF RIFT VALLEY
EASTERN RIFT VALLEY
CONT’D

• Dormant volcanoes :These are manely resting or sleeping

volcanoes and erupt after a long period.
• Extinct volcanoes: there are believed to be incapable of
eruption and have done so far some two to three thousand
years.
C)FAULT AND THEIR TYPES

Types of faults include:

• Strike-slip faults,
• Normal faults,
• Reverse faults,
• Thrust faults, and
• Oblique-slip faults.
C)FAULT AND THEIR TYPES
 C)FAULT AND THEIR TYPES

• A normal fault appears to be that the suspended wall moves downward relative to
the foot wall. The dip angle of the sliding surface is between 45 and 90 degrees.
Many normal faults in mountainous regions are caused by gravity along the edges of
the mountains and may be associated with elevation of the head wall of the slums.
• A reverse fault, which the hanging wall moves upward relative to the foot wall.
• A thrust fault is an dip angle of 45º or less to the extent that the suspended wall
appears to move upward relative to the foot wall. Horizontal compression or rotation
shift is responsible for displacement.
 C)FAULT AND THEIR TYPES

• A strike-slip fault is a generally vertical fault where the two sides pass
horizontally past each other. If the block opposite an observer facing the fault
moves to the right, the shift style is called “right lateral.. If the block moves to the
left, the movement is called “left lateral.. The San Andreas Fault in California is
the most famous example of a right lateral impact-slip fault. It produces a variety
of floor shapes including pulse shifts, louver ridges, detachable basins,
overhanging pools and deflected streams.
• Oblique slip faults show important components of both horizontal (impact-slip)
and vertical (slip-shift) motion. The oblique slip error combines the impact-slip
motion with significant normal, reverse or push slip.
D)SEDIMENTARY AND
METAMORPHIC ROCKS.
Sedimentary rocks are derived from the remains of
previously existing weathered rock fragment, dead plant
have been eroded, moved by wind, water, gravity and ice
and are deposited, compacted in various layers known as
strata. These rocks are formed by erosion, deposition and
compaction of weathered particles.
CONT’D

• Differences in rocks hardness has led to the formation of

residual hills(Inselbergs) due to differential of weathering.
• The hard unweathered granites form uplands while the soft
overlying rocks are worn away by etching.
• Formation of folded mountain in contact between ocean and
continents).Case of Himalaya mountain, Ande mountain,
Rocky mountains, Alpes, Atlas.
FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
CONT’D
 CONT’D

• A fold: is buckled bent, contorted rock. Folds result from complex

processes including fracture, sliding, shearing and flowage.
• TYPES OF FOLD
• Symmetrical (simple)fold: is the fold produced with the limbs inclined at
the some angle of declination. Ex: The limbs are the same nature(similar)
• Asymmetrical fold: is fold in which one limb is steeper than the other. If
the fold is devided into 2parts it can not produced equal parts
• Overload is fold formed when the compressional forces push one limb in
an asymmetrical fold over the over the other limb to a short distance.
CONT’D

• Recumbent fold :is a fold formed when one limb in an

overfold is pushed further by compressional forces over
another limb to a greater distance.
• Overthrust fold(Nappe):is the fold formed when one limb in
and overfold is pushed further by compressional forces
along the faultline or fracture inclined at an angle from the
horzontal.
CONT’D

• Folding :is a bend in the rock layers of the Earth’s crust.

Folds usually occur in sedimentary rocks, which were
originally deposited in flat layer. Pressure from crustal
movements deep within the planet cause the buried strata to
bend.
FIGURE OF FOLDING PROCESS

Anticlinorium: is a large anticline with minor anticlines and

superimposed on it.
Synclinorium: is large syncline with minor anticlines
superimposed on it.
g)Geosyncline: is a very large down fold produced as a result
of the subsidence of the earth’s crust(downwarping)because
of the weight of the materials deposited at a certain plane.
CONT’D
CONT’D
FOLDING PROCESS
CONT’D
LANDFORMS IN LIMESTONE

• Limestone rocks :This name is name applied to any area of

limestone landscape which has developed similar features
like those of the karst region. or
• This area is a limestone region where water action has
created unique feature on the surfaces as well underground.
• Ex: Dinarie Alps of Croatian.
 CONT’D

• CaC03+H20+CO2=Ca(HC03)2
• 2.Surface landscape in lamestone area:
• Swallow hole or sink hole :vertical hole in the ground through which river
disappears.
• Doline/Dolina: Elliptical hollow which is small on limestone area.
• Uvala: is depression on the surface of lamestone area.
 CONT’D

• Polje: is largest surface depression formed by dissolution

of limestone
• Gorge: very deep valley
• The existence of dry valleys is due to swallow
• Hole
• Underground and surface features in limestone
 LIMESTONE FEATURES

• The other distinctive handicap areas occurs when water

turns acidic from absorbing carbon dioxide and then reacts
with the limestone dissolving it .Some of the most
characteristic features such as limestone pavements
swallow holes and caves from best in limestone that is
relatively thick well jointed and hard.
STALACTITE AND STALAGMITE
FEATURES
CONT’D
 CONT’D

• Stalagmite:column of limestone that glows upwards from the floor of cave

• Stalactite: is the columnof limestone that grows from the roof dawnwand.
• Cave: a tunnel formed by dissolution of limestone.
• Cavern: is a large cave
• Pillar:column formed when stalactite and stalagmite
Are joined.
Significance of limestone areas

The surface and underground features of karst scenery

Are beautiful to look they attract many tourists.
CONT’D

• Extration of buiding materials (cement)

• Demerits
• Existence of dry valleys
• Discourage settlement, this is because some of the features
such as grikes and clints cause the surface to be rugged.
 II.WEATHERING

• DEFINITION

• The term weathering cavers a number of processes by which solid

rocks are broken down into smaller particles(sediment) and thus
preparing them for removal by agents of erosion.
• These agents of erosion include ice wind running water
precipitation
• Weathering in any region can occur in these different ways:
• Mechanical weathering (Physical weathering)
CONT’D

• Chemical weathering
• Biological weathering
• Weathering to occur in any environment a number of
factors have to be present.
CONT’D

These factors May include

• Relief factors
• Type of climate experienced by region
• Influence of parent rock
• Infuence of living organization
• Time
 TYPES OF WEATHERING

• Weathering can be classified into two major type that is

mechanical(physical) and chemical weathering if it is effected by
an organism is referred to as biological weathering.
• Mechanical weathering: this is disintegration of rocks into smaller
particles by mechanical process that without involving changes in
the chemical composition of that rock.It is more likely to occur in
area devoid of vegetation like deserts,high mountain and arctic
regions.
EXAMPLES OF THE PROCESSES

• 1.Insolation(thermal expansion) weathering. This

weathering is brought about by changes in temperatures. It
is common in the arid areas where are extreme changes in
temperature. During the day time the rock expand and
contracts at night leading to the cracking and breaking of
the rocks into small particles. Examples of processes under
thermal effets are :
CONT’D

Exfoliation:This refers to the peeling off of the outer layer of

the rock like an onion.This happens due to the fact that when
the temperature is high the outer layers of rocks warm up
faster than the inner layer and cool more rapidly.
This causes the outer thickness to peel off like an anion.This
process responsible for the formation of exfoliation domes in
dersert.Ex:Sinai and Kalahari desert.
CONT’D

• The mounds of steeply sloping rock fragments that often collect

around the bases of an exfoliation dome are called Talus or scree.
• Granular disintegration :is the breaking up of the rocks which
consists different minerals.These minerals expand and contract
separately through temperature changes.
• Block disintegration:this takes place when rock with
homogenous rock breaks itno rectangular blocks due to changes
in temperature.this is common when the rock is well jointed.This
process can be aided by chemical weathering
CONT’D
CONT’D
BLOCK DISINTEGRATION
WEATHERING
BLOCK DISINTEGRATION
WEATHERING
 CONT’D

• Frost shattering(frost action):when the temperature falls the water

in the crack(crevice)of the rocks freezes. On freezing it expands
leading to the widening of the cracks. With repeated freezing and
melting(thawing) the rock breaks into fragments.
• The fragments collect at the base as scree or talus. If the slope is
gentle the rock fragments can occupy a large area forming
landscape called”Telsenmeer or blockfield”
 CONT’D

• Crystal growth(salt crystallization):this happens when salt

crystals are deposited in the rocks crack or pores during
evaporation. As the deposition goes on the crystals become
larger and exert stresses upon the rock causing it to
disintegrate. This process is common in hot desert where is
capillary action or along the coasts where there is constant
supply of salt.
 CONT’D

• Pressure release: This occur where denudation has take place to a great
extent As the materials are removed in certain area the pressure is released
due to the reduction in weight. So the rock (like granite) which was under
high pressure becomes weak as result of weight (unloading)and pressure.
• The rock can later develop some cracks parallel to the surface(the process
called sheeting) and lead to the peeling away of the outer layer of the rock.
CONT’D

• Alternate wetting and drying :some rocks expand after

absorbing water and contract when they become dry. the
alternate wetting and drying leads to the formation of cracks
in the rock and hence it becomes weak such that it can
easily be broken into smaller fragments.
CONT’D

• Biological weathering :By plants :the root of plants

especially of tree can force apart the joints and cracks
leading to the breaking of the rock.
• By animals: The browsing animals tend to break up the
surface rocks.eg rodents
• By human being. When cultivating or quarrying human
being can end up breaking the rocks into small fragment
CHEMICAL WEATHERING

• Chemical weathering is the process which involve the decomposition

or decay of the rocks. The rock which has decayed becomes weak
and hence can be broken easily by physical means
• Chemical weathering include oxidation, carbonation,hydration and
hydrolysis.
• Oxidation:is the process in which rocks minerals are oxidized when
they combine with oxygen in the presence of water.It takes place
actively in the rocks which contain iron.The oxidized rock can be
attached easily by other weathering process like physical weathering.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
PROCESS
CONT’D

• Carbonation: is take place when weak acid in rainwater

reacts with rocks composed of calcium carbonate such as
Limestone. After reaction soluble compround (calcium
bicarbonate)is produced and this is later carried away in
solution.
• Carbonation plays a great role in the decomposition of
calcareous rock composed of calcium carbonate such as
Limestone areas.
CONT’D

• Hydration: is the process in which certain minerals absorb water

and swell causing internal stress and fracturing of the rock. Since
hydration is associated with other processes the rock can change
into new compounds.
• Hydrolysis: is process involves the reaction between water and
minerals in rock producing new chemical compounds.in this
process hydrogen ions of water combine with the irons in
minerals. Hydrolysis is common in reaction between feldspar and
water whereby feldspar breaks down to form clay and silica.
CONT’D

• Solution :is the process in which some soluble minerals

simply dissolve in situ like rock salt which on dissolving
leads to the disappearance of the rocks.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE
AND NATURE OF WEATHERING
-The nature of the rock:-mineral composition
- Rock structure
-Color
-Climate
-organism
EFFECTS OF WEATHERING

• It lead to the soil formation

• Modifying the land form and creating new features.
• It influence the rate of erosion.
• Weathering create building materials for man.
• Formation of minerals
• Weathering create fascinating sites for tourist attraction.
 3.SLOPES

• Definition
• Slope is the inclination of the land.It can be gentle
slope,regular slope,irregular slope,convex and concave slope.
• The important types ofslopes are the following:
• Gentle slope :These slopes are slowly inclined and represented
by contours that are drawn for apart.
• Steep slopes: are characterized by steep cliff or
scarp/escarpment.They are drawn very closely together.
CONT’D

• Convex slopes :these slopes are curved outside

• concave slopes :is a sharpe of the earth surface curving
inward. The slopes can be irregular or regular.
TYPE OF SLOPES
SLOPE IMAGES
4.MASS MOVEMENT OR MASS WASTING

• Definition
• The mass wasting is the downward movement of the
weathered material on a slope under the influence of
gravity. The movement ranges from very slow and
imperceptible movement to very fast movement. It involves
creeping, flowing, sliding of falling.
FACTORS INFLUENCING MASS
WASTING.
• The nature of the material and the extent of saturation:
Where the materials are loose the movement is very fast.
also the movement take place easily when the materials are
saturated with water. Where materials are fine and have a
lot of water flow movement can take place.
• The gradient(The angle of slope):Where the slope is steep,
the movement is fast while where the slope is gentle, the
movement is slow.
 CONT’D

• Climate: Where there is high rainfall flow, movement are

common. Water acts as a lubricant reducing the friction between
the particles. alternate freezing and thawing also encourage the
movement.
• Avalanches are common in the area where freezing takes place
especially in the temperate areas and highlands.
 CONT’D

• Vegetation: mass movement is faster in surface than the area covered with
vegetation.
• Forces within the earth’s crust: These are mainly earthquakes and
volcanic eruption which usually cause large and widespread movements.
For example earthquakes are responsible for the occurrence of rock fall
where the slopes are steeps.
• Human being: many a time human being triggers off the movement
though different activities like mining, quarrying cultivation and grazing.
 CONT’D

• Types of mass wasting: Slow movement

Rapid movement
Slow movement: is a slow but steady movement of soil down a slope. It
can be so slow that it may not be quite notice able.Examples are :
Soil creep :is the slowest and imperceptible movement of weathered
material, mainly fine soil, down a gentle slope. Water acts as lubricant in
the movement.
CONT’D

• The movement can be triggered off by movement of

animals, heating and cooling of the soil and alternate
wetting and dring. oil creep can be manifested through
mounds of soil behind the walls, tilting and cacking of
walls, bending of trees, fences and telegraph poles as well
as cracking of the roads.
CONT’D

• Talus(scree)creep: is also very slow movement of angular waste

rock of all sizes(talus or scree)down a slope.it is common on the
sides of the mountains, hills and scarps.It take place where free-thaw
action is common especially in the highlands and high latitude
regions.
• Solifluction (sludging):is the gravitational flow movement of the
soil mixed with gravel saturated with water down a slope. It is
limited to the mountain and cold climate area where there thawing
causes a saturated surface layers to flow over underlying frozen
ground
II. RAPID MASS WASTING

• This include different forms of mass movement that is Earth

flow, mudflow, avalanches, landslides, and rocks fall.
• Earthflow: is the flow movement of material saturated, with
water down the hill slope or in terraces. The movement is
common in area where there is high humidity. Shallow scar
can be formed on the hills side as a result of this movement.
CONT’D

• Mudflow :movement of large volumes unconsolidated

materials which are super saturated with water. The
materials flow as semi-liquid mud(as slurry)with boulders
and gravel embedded in the mud.
• Mudflows move
EXERCISES

• Explain the types of weathering?

• Explain types of slope?
• With examples, explain influence of rocks in landform?
 CH2.DRAINAGE

• INTRODUCTION: Drainage refers to the naturally occurring

channeled flow formed by stream and rivers which remove water
from the land surface.
• Drainage basin order just as stream order can be quantified, so can
order of drainage basin. Thus,a basin serving only a first order stream
is a first order drainage basin.
• Drainage density is the total length of stream per unit area.
 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE/WATER
CYCLE

• Hydrological cycle/water cycle,is the endless interchange of water

between the sea, the Atmosphere and land. The circulation of water is
carried out in the following processes.
• Evaporation: the water is changed into water vapor by sun’s heat and
then it rises into the atmosphere.
• Evapotranspiration is the combination of evaporation and transpiration.
 CONT’D

Cooling :as the water vapor rise atmosphere, it expands and cools because of
the reduced atmospheric pressure in upper layers of atmosphere.
• Condensation: refers to turning into tiny water droplets.
• Precipitation: When the clouds become too heavy, they release the
moisture. They are holding in the process called precipitation .This process
returns water to the ground in the form of rain or snow.
• surface runoff :When the precipitation reaches the ground in the form of
rain, some water flows on the surface Into valleys, lakes swamps or sea.This
form of water flow is known as surface runoff.
CONT’D

• Infiltration: some of the water fromprecipitation seeps into the

ground through the pores,joints and cracks.this enty of water
into the ground is referred to as infiltration
• Percolation:nside the grond,the water which has infiltrated
moves down wards and sideways by gravty.It does this through
the cracks,joints and pores that exist between rock particles.
• Overland flow :Both the surface runoff and river water flow
back to the ocean and other drainage basin where evaporation
takes place once again.
 SIGNIFICATION OF WATER CYCLE

• The hydrological cycle is significant in maintaining atmosphere energy.

The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere determines the amount of
water vapor in the atmosphere determines the amount of energy stored in
the atmosphere for development of storms.
• The moisture in the atmosphere is important in absorbing terrestrial
radiation.
• The water is important for life to exist on the earth.
• If large quantities of water are held up on land in the form of ice due to
cold conditions caused by climate change.
 CONT’D

• If there is increased evaporation of water from the ground, may

be due to deforestation, the moisture in the ground would
eventually diminish.
• Interference with hydrological cycle would interfere with the
water balance in the ecosystem. excessive evaporation due to a
rise in surface temperatures my cause increased rainfall and
excess flooding. Less evaporation due to temperatures
becoming lower would cause a shortage of rainfall in many
drought.
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
 SIGNIFICANCE OF WATER CYCLE

• The hydrological cycle is significant in maintaining atmosphere energy.

• - The moisture in the atmosphere is important in absorbing terrestrial radiation.
• - Water is important for life to exist on the earth. This in turn may lead to avoid and conditions
and eventually to desertification.
• If large quantities of water are held up on land in the form of ice due to cold conditions caused
by climate change. If would lead to reduced precipitation elsewhere as less water would be
getting back into the cycle.
• - Interference with the hydrological cycle would interfere with the water balance in the
ecosystem. Excessive evaporation due to a rise in surface temperatures my cause increased
rainfall and excess flooding. Less evaporation due to temperatures becoming lower would
cause a shortage of rainfall in many droughts.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF WATER CYCLE

• The hydrological cycle is significant in maintaining atmosphere energy. The amount of

water vapor in the atmosphere determines the amount of energy stored in the atmosphere
for the development of storms.
• - The moisture in the atmosphere is important in absorbing terrestrial radiation. This
regulates the heat being lost from the ground by reflecting most of it back to the earth.
This keeps the lower atmosphere warm. The moisture in the atmosphere is therefore
very significant in heat circulation.
• - Water is important for life to exist on the earth. Interference with the hydrological cycle
has far reaching consequence on climate. When less water is getting into atmosphere,
there is reduced precipitation. This in turn may lead to avoid and conditions and
eventually to desertification.
 TYPES OF AQUIFERS

• Confined aquifers
• Confined Aquifers are those bodies of water found accumulating in a permeable
rock and are been enclosed by two impermeable rock layers or rock bodies.
Confined Aquifers are aquifers that are found to be overlain by a confining rock
layer or rock bodies, often made up of clay which might offer some form of
protection from surface contamination. The geological barriers which are non-
permeable and found exist between the aquifer causes the water within it to be
under pressure which is comparatively more than the atmospheric pressure. .
 CONT’D

• Confined aquifers
• Confined Aquifers are those bodies of water found accumulating in a permeable
rock and are been enclosed by two impermeable rock layers or rock bodies.
Confined Aquifers are aquifers that are found to be overlain by a confining rock
layer or rock bodies, often made up of clay which might offer some form of
protection from surface contamination. The geological barriers which are non-
permeable and found exist between the aquifer causes the water within it to be
under pressure which is comparatively more than the atmospheric pressure.
• Confined aquifers could also be referred to as “Artesian aquifers” which could
be found most above the base of confined rock layers.
CONT’D
 CONT’D

• Unconfined aquifer
• Unconfined Aquifer unlike confined aquifers are generally found located near the land surface
and have no layers of clay (or other impermeable geologic material) above the water table
although they are found lying relatively above impermeable clay rock layers. The uppermost
boundary of groundwater within the unconfined aquifer is the water table, the groundwater in
an unconfined aquifer is more vulnerable to contamination from surface pollution as compared
to that in confined aquifers this been so due to easy groundwater infiltration by land pollutants.
• “Perched aquifers” are special cases of unconfined aquifers occurring in situation where
groundwater bodies are separated from their main groundwater source by relatively
impermeable rock layers of small areal extents and zones of aeration above the main body of
groundwater
 CONT’D

• Unconfined aquifer
 WATER BALANCE CONCEPT

• The balance at any location between the input precipitation (P) and output (Evapotranspiration E) and
runoff (R).
• P=E+R
• If water balance is computed for a number of years, ground water storage (S) is held to be constant.
But for studies of a single year, groundwater fluctuation is taken into account.
• P=E+R±S
• Storage and runoff tend to be higher in winter, and evapotranspiration is higher in summer.
• Moisture index
• Is a measure of the water balance of an area in terms of gains from precipitation (P) and losses from
potential evapotranspiration (PE). The moisture index MI is thus calculated:
• MI=100(P-PE)/PE
 TYPES OF DRAINAGE

• Drainage systems: refers to the relationship between rivers and landforms

where they flow.
• There are three main types:
• Accordant drainage system :is the normal drainage system of a river where
it flows according to the structure of rocks and slope by following areas of
weak rocks.
CONT’D

• Discordant drainage system :in this drainage system, the

river seems to be flowing in disagreement with general
direction of the slope and dominant rocks structure.
• And back tilted
 DRAINAGE PATTERNS

Drainage patterns is the pattern of a drainage network is influenced by

geological structures.
• Anastomic drainage: show the division of a river into several
channels and develops on nearly horizontal on coarse sediments.
CONT’D

• Annular or radical drainage: shows the major rivers

radiating out from a center with the tributaries arranged
along a series of nested areas. Annular drainage develops on
dome.
• Centripetal drainage/dentritic drainage shows a
branching network similar to that of a tree.
• Parallel drainage develops in slopes of moderate angle
CONT’D

• Trellis pattern :this pattern is also called trellised or rectilinear

pattern. the tributaries join the main river at right angles and the
minor tributaries in turn join the main tributaires at right angle too.
• Fault guided pattern: the rivers are guided by fault.
• Parallel pattern: the rivers are guided by fault
• Paralled pattern :is this drainage pattern the rivers and their
tributaries vitually flow parallel to one another. Slope is the main
influential factor.
TYPES OF AQUIFERS

• Artesian basin: is an artesian basin is saucer-shaped

depression which consists of a layer of permeable rock that
is sandwiched between two layers of impermeable rocks.
• The whole system of rocks around the basin forms a broad
syncline.one or both ends of the permeable rock are
exposed on the surface,Rain water enters the permeaple
rock that is sandwiched between two layers of impermeable
rocks.
CONT’D
 CONT’D

• Discordant drainage systems are the two types, namely

Antecedent and surimposed.
• Antecedent drainage system: is the types of drainage where
a river maintains its direction of flow across land which is
undergoing uplifting. If a local uplift occurs along a section
of the river’s course, the river may continue flowing in its
original direction if it continues eroding vertically at the same
place as rate at which the land is rising. This can be achieved
by powerful river.
CONT’D

• Surimposed drainage system :develops when a river flows

over rocks which it clown cutting. Once these rocks are
removed through erosion, the river begins to flow over a
new set of rocks of different structure and which are older.
• Back tilted drainage system :this system is also called
Reversed drainage
CONT’D
CONT’D

• Running water in the form of river is the most widespread

agent of land sculpture(breaking down of rocks and
removing them.
EXERCISES

• Explain the types of drainage patterns?

• With figure explain water cycle?
 CH3.SOIL

• INTRODUCTION
• Soil is the uppermost surface layer of loose or unconsolidated
material which overlies the crustal rock and on which plants
grow. All life on earth depends on soil as direct or indirect source
of food, plants are rooted in the soil and they obtain their
nutrients, exploitation of minerals(raw materials, building
infrastructure)
CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL
• There are four soil constituents: mineral matter or inorganic
component or rock particles, organic matter, soil water, soil
air.
• Mineral matter is derived from weathering of the parent
material and consists of particles of different sizes such as
clays, silt and sand. The mineral elements in the soil can be
grouped into three categories: silicates, micronutrients and
trace elements.
 CONT’D

• Silicate: mineral are silicon, iron and Aluminum are the most
important in the rocks.
• Micro-nutrients include metallic element: such as calcium,
Magnesium, potassium and non metallic elements such as
phosphorus, nitrogen, Sulphur, calcium.
 CONT’D

• Organic matter is formed by the decomposition and

assimilation of plants tissues and animal. Decomposed
organic matter is called Humus. Humus is soft and
encourages bacteria to exist and multiply in the soil. such
bacteria help in breaking down organic matter into simple
substances which help in boosting the fertility of the soil.
 CONT’D

• Water or moisture constitutes about 2.5 of the soil. the water

that is contained in the soil is called soil water. since the
water is solvent, it is dissolves, it dissolves various
substances. the water or moisture helps in washing highly
soluble salts from the upper layer of the soil to the lower
layer. this is known as leaching.
 CONT’D

• Air accounts for about 2.5 of the soil components. It is contained

within the pores or air space between the soil particles. soil air
facilitates the plants growth. In the absent of oxygen e.g in
waterlogged soils, substances which are poisonous to plants
accumulate.
CONT’D
CONT’D
 SOIL FORMATION

• Soil begins to form when the processes of denudation break down rocks and
other materials that lies near or on the earth’s suface.The parent material is
then wethered to produce soil. The wathering of rocks is carried out by the
major agents like rain,sunshine,ice and wind.
• The weathering of rocks materials is called Regolith.
PROCESS FOR SOIL FORMATION

• Soil is formed though the following seven processes:

• Organic accumulation :this process involves the accumulation of
decaying vegetables and animal matter on the ground surface.
The accumulated mass slowly breaks down to form humus which
is major component of the soil.
 CONT’D

• Eluviation: is a mechanical washing down of fine mineral particles like

those of clay from the upper layer of the soil into the middle or the lower
layer.
• The material are moved in suspension by the water which is percolating
downwards. The upper layer from which materials have been eluviated is
called the eluvial zone.
CONT’D

• Leaching: this is there move of soluble mineral matter in

solution from the upper horizontal layer to the lower
horizons of the soil.
• This process can also be referred to as chemical eluviation.
It is common in wet climate. Leaching cause the deficient
minerals of the top soil.
 CONT’D

• Illuviation: is the decomposition or accumulation of the materials that

have been washed down from the upper layer to the lower layer of
the soil through the process of eluviation.
• Illuviation sometime leads to the formation of a hard pan or crust of
laterite. The materials deposited in the lower horizon include colloids
very tiny particles of humus, salt and other mineral particles.
 CONT’D

• Precipitation: This is the formation of the solid matter in the subsoil.

The solid matter is formed from the solutions washed down from the
upper layers though leaching.
• Cheluviation: this is the downward movement of materials, however,
cheluviation occurs through the influence of organic agents which are
also refered to as chelating agents.
CONT’D

• Organic sorting :this is the separation of materials, usually

of the different sizes through organic influence. It involves
changes in the size of soil particles, enrichment of the soil
with organic matter as humus and movement of mineral
elements in solution.
SOIL PROFILE
SOIL PROFILE
PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL
• Soils have many physical and chemical properties which
make them different. The properties of each type of soil
determine its characteristics. The major properties of soil
include: texture, structure, porosity, color temperature and
lime content. these properties are used to describe the
characteristics of a particular soil.
CONT’D

• Soil structure refers to the way soil particles are grouped

together into larger-sized particles.the structure of soil is
described from the way its particles are joined into groups
which areknown as peds.these groups of soil particles are
also called flocules.the progress through which the soil
particles join up is known as flocculation.
SOIL STRUCTURE
FACTORS INFLUENCE SOIL
FORMATION
• Parent material.
• Climate
• Type and amount of organic life(soil biota)
• Time
 CONT’D

• Soil texture refers to the composition of a particular soil in term of the

size of its particles. The classification of soils according to the texture
is based on size of individual soil particles.
• Soil particles can be coarse, medium of fine. soil particles range from
gravel which the coarsed through sand, silt then clay which is the
finest.
SOIL TEXTURE
CONT’D

• Soil color is a property that is used to describe different types

of soils. Color can be used a basis for soil identification. Soil
color is influenced by the following factors.
• Type of parent material from material from which a soil has
developed.
• Chemical composition of soil
• The content of organic matter present in the soil.
• The drainage of area in which the soil is found.
CONT’D

Soil profile refers to the vertical arrangement of different layers of

soil from the surface to the bedrock.Each arranged layer is called
Horizon.In general,there are four horizons,A,B and C.
Horizon A and B represent the true soil which is also known as
SOLUM.
HorizonC is the subsoil or the the zone of weathered parent
material.BeneathC lies horizon D which is an unweathered
materials.
Horizon A is subdivised into layers,namely AOO,A1,A2 and A3.
CONT’D

• Soil catena :the word catena means a chain in Latin. A soil

catena therefore refers to the sequence of different soil
down a slope.
• the soils are usually derived from the same or similar parent
material but they vary with relief and drainage.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION

• According to the climate the great soil groups include

Tropical soil, Temperate soil land polar soil. This is because
climate is a very significant factor in the development of soil.
• Tropical soils:
• Lactosols these soils that are formed in tropical regions
which experience high rainfall and high temperature but with
a definite dry season.The high rainfall causes heavy leaching
to take place in these soils.
 CONT’D

• Characteristics of lactosols
• They are soil rich in hydroxide of iron,aluminium and magnesium
compounds.They are soils which are heavy leached.
• Laterite soils/laterites
• The lateritic soils is developed in tropical humid regions characterized
by the existence of two seasons which alternate(humid and dry).
• Laterite is not very deep soil.
• Laterite is developed on top hill or hillslop.
CONT’D

• Red earth :is developed in tropical savannah under

conditionals of well defined seasonal rainfall and high
temperature throughout the year.
• Desert soils :these soils form in the arid regions of tropics.
because of scarcity of moisture, the desert soils may be light
colored and sand. while in Other area, they may be saline.
The red desert soils are also in this category.
 CONT’D

• Categories
• Podzals : these soils form in moist cool temperature regions which are
forested.They are leached but silica is retained in the upper layer. They
vary in color from brown, ash-grey, grey-brown tored-yellow.
• They are poor and acidic soils
CONT’D

• Brown soils : These soil form in deciduous forests of the

warm temperature regions. The soils have not been leached.
• Chermozems: these soils develop in the warm temperature
grassland regions. They are black earths and are very rich in
humus. They are considered to be the most fertile soils in
the world
 INTERZONAL SOILS AND AZONAL SOIL

Interzonal soils: these are soil whose formation is

influenced by relief, nature or topography and parent rock
as the major factors in their formation.
• They are influenced by topographic factors .
Interzonalsoils are therefore grouped into the following
types.
• Saline soil
CONT’D

• Peat soil
• Calcareous soils
• Azonal soils:These are skeleteral soils resulting from
erosion and deposition, defined horizons. They include
volcanic soils from recent solidified lava.
CONT’D

• Peat soil
• Calcareous soils
• Azonal soils:These are skeleteral soils resulting from
erosion and deposition, defined horizons. They include
volcanic soils from recent solidified lava.
CONT’D

• Mountain soils
• Marine soils
• Alluvial soils
• Volcanic soil
• Soil erosion/soil degeneration
CONT’D

Soil color: is a property that is used to describe different

types of soils. color can be used as basis for soil identification.
Soil color is influenced by the following factors:
-Type of parent material from which a soil has developed
-Chemical composition of soil
-The content of organic matter present in soil.
-The drainage of area in which the soil is found.
 SOIL EROSION/SOIL DEGENERATION

• Soil degeneration refers to the decline in the usefulness of the soil

resulting from either soil mismanagement, loose its fertility change the
chemical composition. soil degeneration can be caused by human
activities or natural causes.
CONT’D

• Human made causes of soil erosion:

-Overgrazing
-Uphill and down hill cultivation
-Deforestation/Rapid population increase
-Bush burning.
-monoculture
Open cast mining.
CONT’D

Natural causes of soil erosion.

-Heavy rainfall
-Droughts
-Steep relief
-Rivers and wave
-winds.
-Ice and glaciers.
CONT’D

• Measures to control soil erosion.

• Terracing of hill slopes.
• Crops rotation
• Reduction of animal herds.
• Governmental policy
• Education and mass mobilization.
• Use the fertilizers as humus.
 EXERCISES

• Differentiate soil catena and soil profile?

• Discuss on effect of soil erosion ?
• Discuss on importance of soil?
 CHVI.ECOLOGY

Introduction
•Ecology: is the study of relationships of living organisms with each other and their
non living physical surrounding.
•Environment: is the surroundings .The natural environment includes the nature of
living space, the chemical and physical properties of the living space, the climate
and the assortment of other organisms present.
•Habitat is the typical environment of a particular organism.
•Ecosystem: is any area in which organism both of with each other and with their
abiotic environment, to form a self-sustaining unity.
•Biosphere include all living organisms
CONT’D
 CONT’D

•a. Tropical forests

•1. Tropical rainforests Tropical rainforests are evergreen rainforests seasonal in
nature, tall trees ≥ 30 m, heterogeneous trees, presence of lianas (epiphytes) ,
Buttress roots, gloomy, stratified forest, dense forests.
•Tropical rainforests can be found in low laying areas of Africa such as Congo basin,
the west coasts of Africa, along the East coast of Africa, the tropical coast of the
pacific in central America, southern parts of Asia.
•Tropical rainforests are characterized biodiversity.
•-Trees are closely set and evergreen throughout the year.
•-From the ground to the uppermost canopy, the tropical evergreen forest reveal five
layers (strata) .
 CONT’D

• 2.Tropical deciduous forests The tropical deciduous forest biome is

associated with tropical monsoon region, tropical continental climate,…
• It occurs in eastern and south Africa (Zambezi basin , Tanzania plateau
which clothed in main with dry deciduous woodland known as ‘ Miombo
woodland’ , coastal Queensland ,parts of eastern Brazil , smaller areas of
Ecuador, Columbia, some parts of central Africa. ).
• Tropical monsoon forests are found in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Burma,
north Vietnam, East Java, part of India, and the Islands to the North East of
Australia
CONT’D

• -Seasonal drought in the tropics causes deciduous character

to the plants. If the rainfall is rather low and irregular,
tropical shrub and thorn forest is developed but if the
rainfall is higher and more regular a well developed
deciduous forest occur.
• -These forests are less dense than the tropical rainforests.

• -Four canopies can be distinguished.

CONT’D

• -The animals in this type of forest range from micro-organism

to large bode animals like elephants, hippopotamus, horses,
rhinos, lions, buffaloes, tigers, deer, antelopes, wild pigs and
monkeys.
• -Insects , birds, and reptiles are also numerous. The peacock is
native to the region : lizards snakes, crocodiles and turtles are
common .
• -Agriculture is primarily subsistence farming and many
peasants live a self contained and self sufficient existence.
 CONT’D

• 1.Mediterraneen forest: The Mediterranean vegetation has developed

between 30 and 45 ° latitude N/S in the western parts of continents. The largest
segment of this vegetation include the European countries bordering the
Mediterranean sea, while other are central and southern California (USA),
central Chile (South America), North –Western Coastal land of America
bordering the Mediterranean
• sea and South –Western Africa, coastal lands of Asia bordering the
Mediterranean sea, and western and southern Australia.
• Characteristics
• -The Mediterranean vegetation is characterized by cool and wet winters, warm
and dry summers and sunny weather throughout the year.
 CONT’D

• -The Mediterranean vegetation community consists of a variety of

sclerophyll plant formation ranging from mixed evergreen forests to
woodland, dwarf trees and scrub.
• -Trees and scrub are the dominant vegetation. The scrubs are known by
different names in different locatics e.g. Maquis in southern Europe,
Chapparal in California , fymbos in South
 CONT’D

• Africa, Mallee shrub in Australia, Mattoral in Spain and Macchia in Italy.

• -Most plants have thick bark and leaves for storage of water during winter
rains.
• -The Mediterranean plants have developed xeromorphic adaptation such as
waxy and spiny leaves which enable them to withstand dry seasons.
 CONT’D

• -There are about 201 species of vertebrate species. Mule deer in California
and Chilean guanaco in Chile are the large mammals found here . Ground
squirrels , woodrats and mule deer are dominant mammals. Predators like
wolf, mountain lion, and grizzly bear have become rare species because of
man’s interference.
• Rodent such as rabbits and predators such as coyote, lizards, snakes,
Kangoroos, raptorial birds like kites , falcons, hawks are the important
animals found in this biome.
• -In this middle Europe, terraces fields, horticultural gardens, orchards,
olives groves are all grown.
 CONT’D

• 2.Temperate deciduous forest The temperate deciduous forests lie

in mid-latitudes and are found on both western and eastern margins
of the continental land masses.
• It occurs between 45-60 °N/S in western Europe, USA and South
western Canada , Eastern Asia (Mandchuria) , Korea, North China
and Japan. In the Southern hemisphere, it is found in East Australia
and in New-Zealand.
 CONT’D

Characteristics
•-Summers are cool and wet with cold winter .
•-Trees have broad leaves which they shed off in autumn.
•-The tree are tall with broad leaves giving them a continuous dense canopy in
summer.
•-Forests are luxuriant and productive. These are many herbaceous plants, ferms and
mosses at ground level. In North Western Europe and USA there are mountain
coniferous type productions.
•-Most trees grow in uniform upstands of same species.
•-There are many kinds of animals living in this forest including deer, bears, oxen,
wolves foxes,
 CONT’D

• 3.Coniferous forests They can be compared to boreal forests. This type of forest
extends between 45 °N and 75 °N. They occur in two main belts in the northern
hemisphere across Eurasia and in North America from East coast to west coast.
• Characteristics of coniferous forests
• -The trees species include spruce, pines and fir. -The forests are evergreen
throughout the year. -Trees have needle-shaped leaves to reduce loss of water due
to transpiration. -The leaves of trees are protected from cold winter by thick skin. -
The undergrowth vegetation is quasi absent in coniferous forests. -The roots are
widely spread out so as to collect water from the top soil since the lower layer is
 CONT’D

• -The roots are widely spread out so as to collect water from the top
soil since the lower layer is always permanently in a frozen state.
• -Trees species have almost the same layers
• -The minor influent animals include mostly invertebrate,
carnivorous animal, mammals, birds.
 CONT’D

• Desert vegetation
• Desert area receive less than 250 mm of rainfall per year.
• Characteristics
• -Desert are either warm or cold. Most of deserts receive less than
250 mm per year of precipitation.
• -Deserts known lack of moisture.
 CONT’D

• All deserts have chemacphytes-shrubs with many branches.

• -There is limited plants life in the true desert as opposed to the
semi-arid areas.
• -Desert plants are drought tolerant and store moisture. They
therefore adopt numerous protective devises such as small
leathery leaves , spines (instead of true lives) and wide wide
spreading root systems
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
CONT’D

• -Lack of plant life

• - lack of animals. Few animals adapt to this type of climate.
They include camels, sheep, antelopes, rats, burrowing
animals like kangaroo, mouse pocket mouse, jerba ,wood
rat, etc.
• - Some of the inhabitant include : the nomadic camel, sheep
and goat herders, Touaregs of Sahara, Bedouins of Arabian
desert and Bushmen of Kalahari, etc
 CONT’D

• e. Tundra vegetation
• -Tundra vegetation is characterized by very low temperature
throughout the year ( tundra remains a burren land ) .The ground
surface remains snow covered at least for 7-8 months each year and
complete darkness for weeks.
• -The topsoil and subsoil are permanent frozen in winter but in summer
only surface snow melts and subsoil remains frozen permafrost
conditions vast swamp and morasses. Soils are moist and they are
coarse, gravely deposits to baggy peats. Clay-soils are common in the
drained tundra regions
 CONT’D

• -Tundra vegetation's are called ‘cryophytes’ and are well

adapted to severe environmental conditions because of their
unique features to withstand extreme cold conditions.
• -Grasses and sedges tend to dominate the summer landscape.
In summer ephemeral growth of myriads of small flaring trees
grow in sheltered areas (small) dwarf, willows, alders and
birches.
CONT’D

• -Some smaller animals such as rodents, lemmings, shrews,

voles, etc. live in burrows during winter to protect
themselves from severe cold and predators animals.
American musk ox, arctic fox, birds like ptarmigan, etc.
• -Reindeer and caribou are important animals of the large
migratory type. During summer season, insects like
mosquitoes, midges, black flies, etc grow in swamps and
rivers.
CONT’D

• -For centuries the tundra has been inhabited by nomadic

tribes e.g. Eskimos of Greenland, northern of Canada, and
Alaska, lapps of Northern Finland and Scandinavia,
Samoyed of Siberia, Yakuts of Lena basin, and Kotyaks
and chukchi of North-Eastern Asia.
FOOD CHAIN

• A) 4.3. Feeding habits in animals

• Feeding in the process of eating food by an animal.
• Animals need food for energy growth and to maintain good hearth.
• Animals can be classified into group according to their feeding
habits.
• These groups are carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, rodents, grain
eaters and insectivores
CONT’D

• Herbivores:
• Herbivores are animals that feed only on plants. They feed on grass,
herbs, shrubs and parts of plants such as leaves root and stems.
• Examples of herbivorous animals are cattle, gaots, zebras, antelopes and
elephants
• Omnivores:
• Omnivores are animals that feed on both flesh and plants. Carnivores:
• Carnivores are animals that feed onely on the fresh of other animals
 CONT’D

• Examples of omnivorous animals are human beings, pigs, chimpanzees and bears.
• Insectivores:
• Insectivores are animals that feed on insects.
• Examples of insectivorous animals are frogs, lizards, bats, chameleons and spiders
• Rodents:
• These are animals that mainly feed on plants and seeds.
• Examples of rodents are rats, mice and squirrels, rabbit
• Grain eaters:
• Grain eaters are animals that mainly feed on grains. They swallow then whole. The
grains accumulate in the crop.
CONT’D

• A food web is the archetypal ecological network. Plants capture solar energy
and use it to synthesize simple sugars . As plants grow, they accumulate
nutrients and are eaten by grazing herbivores, and the energy is transferred
through a chain of organisms by consumption. The simplified linear feeding
pathways that move from a basal trophic species to a top consumer is called the
food chain.
• The larger interlocking pattern of food chains in an ecological community
creates a complex food web. Food webs are a type of concept map or a heuristic
device that is used to illustrate and study pathways of energy and material flows.
 CONT’D

• Food webs exhibit principles of ecological emergence through the nature

of trophic relationships: some species have many weak feeding links
(e.g., omnivores) while some are more specialized with fewer stronger
feeding links (e.g., primary predators).
• Theoretical and empirical studies identify non-random emergent patterns
of few strong and many weak linkages that explain how ecological
communities remain stable over time.
CONT’D

• . Food webs are composed of subgroups where members in a

community are linked by strong interactions, and the weak
interactions occur between these subgroups.
• This increases food web stability. Step by step lines or relations are
drawn until a web of life is illustrated.
CONT’D
QUANTITY OF ENERGY TRANSFERS
 CONT’D

• Species are broadly categorized as autotrophs (or primary producers),

heterotrophs (or consumers), and Detritivores (or decomposers).
Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food (production is
greater than respiration) by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
Heterotrophs are organisms that must feed on others for nourishment and
energy (respiration exceeds production).
CONT’D

• Heterotrophs can be further sub-divided into different functional

groups, including primary consumers (strict herbivores),
secondary consumers (carnivorous predators that feed exclusively on
herbivores) and tertiary consumers (predators that feed on a mix of
herbivores and predators).
• Omnivores do not fit neatly into a functional category because they
eat both plant and animal tissues. It has been suggested that
omnivores have a greater functional influence as predators, because
compared to herbivores they are relatively inefficient at grazing.
 THE CARBON CYCLE

• Carbon, used by all living organisms, continuously circulates in Earth’s

ecosystem. In the atmosphere it exists as carbon dioxide, a colorless, odorless
gas.
• Plants absorb carbon dioxide in the process of photosynthesis. Animals acquire
the carbon stored in plant tissue when they eat, and they exhale carbon dioxide
as a by-product of metabolism.
• Surface bodies of water, especially oceans, absorb vast amounts of atmospheric
carbon dioxide. Some carbon is removed from circulation as deposits of coal,
oil, natural gas, and limestone. The burning of fossil fuels adds additional
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
CONT’D
POLLUTION

Air Pollution
CONT’D

Water Pollution
CONT’D

Water Pollution
CONT’D

Solid Waste and Hazardous Waste

EXERCISES

• 1. Explain the concept Ecosystem. Discuss the effect of human induced

pressures on
Forest ecosystems in Rwanda.
• 2. What is biodiversity? Explain the factors that have led to the
changing global biodiversity
• 3. State the different types of ecosystems. Discuss the effects of human
activities on the biodiversity of the ecosystem in your environment.
• 4. Construct a food chain for any one terrestrial ecosystem and for an
aquatic ecosystem and explain importance of food chain in ecological
equilibrium.
CH5.CLIMATOLOGY

Definition
Climatology: is study of climate of the Earth, their origin, their
role as element of the natural environment. while meteorology
study the character of the atmosphere and the event and the
processes within it, together with the interaction between the
Atmosphere and the face of the Earth.
 CONT’D

• Aims and objects of climatology

• Climatology seeks to explain the causes of different types of climates, the
reasons for their variations, their general and specific locations, their effects on
natural vegetation, and
• The processes that produce different climates. It is also a science which makes a
detailed analysis of the interactions of the weather and climate elements upon
human societies.
• Thus, the ultimate aim of climatology is to discuss various climatic elements as
well as factors that control the distribution of climate over the earth.
 CONT’D

• Subdivisions of climatology
Physical climatology
Physical climatology, also known as dynamic climatology, deals with the
interpretation of factors responsible for the spatial and temporal variations of
exchange of air circulation, heat and humidity. It studies various elements of
weather, namely insolation, temperature, air pressure,wind evaporation and
humidity, precipitation, fogs, visibility, etc.
 CONT’D

• Subdivisions of climatology
Regional climatology
Climatic conditions vary from one region to the other. In other words, there are
spatial variations in the combinations of elements of weather and climate
(insolation, temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc) and hence different climate
types are originated. M.M. Yoshino, (1975) identified the following four groups
of climates to be included in regional climatology: microclimates( extendes in
100 square meters), local climate ( extended in 100 square meters), mesoclimate
( extended horizontally in 100 meters to 20 km) and macloclimates also known
as geoclimate or geographical climate ( the horizontal distance is more than 20
km).
 CONT’D

• Subdivisions of climatology
• Applied climatology
It studies the climatic controls of human activities and the application of climatic
principles and
knowledge to solve various problems such as global warming and climatic
change
 ATMOSPHERE

• Definitions: Atmosphere (from Latin atmos = vapor and sphaira = sphere, refers to
a layer (of gases) or envelope of gases and tiny particles that surround the earth.
Due to the universal Gravitational pull of the earth, almost the total mass of the
atmosphere is concentrated in the lower layers. Meteorologists study all the
characteristics of the atmosphere especially weather and
• Climate.
• 1.2.1. Subdivision of the atmosphere or structure
• The atmosphere is subdivided mainly into 4 layers where To is alternatively
increasing or decreasing due to various factors. They include: Troposphere,
Stratosphere, Mesosphere and Thermosphere.
 CONT’D

• A .Troposphere: It extends from 0-15 km. It is the atmospheric layer which is

closest to the earth’s
• surface. Troposphere is a sphere of change because it is a layer in which all
weather changes occur.
• Almost all of the water vapor and carbon dioxide are found in the troposphere.
• Generally, most of the climatic phenomena including clouds, and other vertical
and horizontal
• movements of the air are confined in the troposphere
 CONT’D

• b. Stratosphere
The layer of the atmosphere called stratosphere extends upwards from the
tropaupose to an altitude of 50km. Almost all the ozone in the atmosphere is
concentrated in the stratosphere. At the base of that layer is about -60 ̊c. In the
upper stratosphere the To begins to increase with increasing altitude. The air in
that layer is getting warmer as a result of the direct absorption of energy by
ozone. The temperature of the ozone layer rises steadily to an altitude of about
50km where the stratopause reaches its highest temperature, the upper limit of
the stratosphere is called stratopause.
 CONT’D

c. Mesosphere
It extends from the stratopause up to 80km. In that layer, temperature decreases
with increasing altitude. Generally, the mesosphere is the coldest layer of
atmosphere dropping to a Temperature of -90 ̊c .The upper limit of mesosphere is
mesopause and is marked by a return to increasing temperature.
D. Thermosphere
It extends between 80 and 600 km of altitude. In this layer the temperature
increases steadily with increasing altitude due to absorption of solar energy by
Nitrogen and oxygen atoms, there is not enough data about temperature changes
but temperature is very high until 1200 ̊c.
 CONT’D

However, the air in the thermosphere is so thin and the particles move faster but are
very far apart
and therefore do not strike the thermometer to allow accurate reading.
Above the thermosphere exists a layer known as Exosphere extending from the
upper limit of the
thermosphere up to 10000 km where the atmosphere stops: The beginning of
space? It is a
gravitational zone of artificial satellite
 COMPOSITION OF THE
ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is composed by three major constituents, namely: Gases, water
vapour, and
aerosols.
Gaseous composition of atmosphere
●Carbon dioxide(CO2) =0.035% ● Water vapor( H20)= 0-4%
● Nitrogen (N2 )= 72% ●Neon( Ne)=0.0018%
● Oxygen ( O2)= 21% ●Krypton( Kr)=0.000114%
●Nitrogen oxide( N2O)= 0.00005%
● Argon ( A)=0.93% ●Hydrogen( H)= 0.00005% ●
Xenon( Xe)=0.0000087%
● Ozone( O3)=0- 0.000001%
 CONT’D

Water vapor
The process of evaporation is responsible for the transformation of water into vapour.
There is much spatial and temporal variation in vapour content in the atmosphere.
The content of water vapour ranges horizontally from 0.02% in the cold dry air over
polar areas to 5 % over moist tropical areas. The content of water vapour decreases
with the altitude in the atmosphere. It is the primary greenhouse gas. More than 90%
of the total atmospheric vapour is found up to height of 5 km. The moisture content
in the atmosphere creates several forms of condensation and precipitation e.g. clouds,
fogs, dew, rainfall, frost, snowfall etc
 CONT’D

Aerosols
Suspended particulate matter (SPM) in the atmosphere including solid particles of
varying sizes and liquid droplets are collectively called aerosols which include: dust
particles from volcanic eruptions, deserts, rocks etc. The concentration of particulate
matter decrease as altitude increases.
These particulates help in the selective scattering of shortwaves electro-magnetic
solar radiation which adds varied charming colour of red and orange at sunrise and
sunset. Some of the aerosols, mainly water droplets, absorb certain amount of solar
radiation while some amount of radiant solar energy is reflected back into space.
 CONT’D

Solid particulate matter mainly salt particles become hydroscopic nuclei and thus
help in the
formation of water droplets, fogs, clouds and varied forms of condensation and
precipitation.
CONT’D

• Solar energy/Radiation :All of the energy that the Earth

receives from the sun travels though space between the
earth and the sun as Radiation. radiation includes all forms
of energy that travel through space as wave. Light is the
form of radiation that can be see with naked eyes. There are
many other forms of radiation that we can not see, such as
X rays and radio waves and ultraviolet rays.
 CONT’D

• Radiation travels through space in the form of waves at a very high speed
300,000km/s. The various types of radiation differ in the length of their
waves, with various wavelengths. Wavelengths shorter than those of
visible light include ultraviolet rays, x rays and gramma rays.
• Longer wavelengths include infrared waves and radio waves. The waves
that make up all forms of radiation are called electromagnetic waves. The
complete range wavelengths make up the electromagnetic spectrum
 CONT’D

• Scattering: cloud, dust and gas molecules in the

Atmosphere affect the path of radiation from The sun causing scattering.
Scattering means that water droplet and dust suspended in the atmosphere
reflect and bend the rays.
This benching sends the rays out in all directions without changing their
wavelengths. In clear, cloudless air, scattering is also caused by the reflection
of light off gas molecules. Scattering sends some of the radiation back into
space. The remaining radiation continues downward toward the earth’s
surface.
 CONT’D

• Reflection: on the total amount of solar energy reaching the earth’s

atmosphere, about 20% is absorbed by the atmosphere; about 30% is
scattered back into space or is reflected from clouds or the earth’s
surface. The remaining 50% is absorbed by the surface.
The fraction of solar radiation reflected by a particular surface is called
albedo. The earth has an albedo of 0.3.
 CONT’D

• Absorption and infrared energy :the solar radiation that is not

referred by the earth’s surface is absorbed by the earth. Part of absorbed
radiation is compose of the infrared rays that have penetrated the
atmosphere.
• When you feel the warmth of the sun, you are feeling infrared rays. The
rock, soil, water band other earth materials are heated when they absorb
infrared rays and visible light. The heated materials then produce their
own infrared rays from the heat energy.
 CONT’D

• Greenhouse effect: the absorption of long wavelength infrared rays from

the earth surface by gas molecules in the atmosphere heat energy and
prevent it from escaping back into space.
• As a result , the lower atmosphere becomes warm. The warmed lower
atmosphere keeps the surface much warmer than it would be if there were
no atmosphere.
 CONT’D

• The process by which atmosphere absorbs radiation compared to

greenhouse . The glass of greenhouse allows the short wavelengths of
visible light and infrared rays from the sun to pass through to the interior.
• The process by which the atmosphere traps the infrared rays over the
earth’s surface is called the greenhouse effect. By this process, the energy
from the sun warm the air after having first been absorbed at earth’s surface.
The atmosphere is heated mostly in the lower layer, the atmosphere.
CONT’D
 IMPORTANCE OF ATMOSPHERE

• The atmosphere supports life

•  It protects the living things from harmful ultraviolet radiations through the
ozone layer
•  It helps to stabilize the differences in temperature on the earth surface
•  It regulates the heat during day and night
•  It also provides precipitation through the condensation process to sustain life.
•  It provides different types of gases which are useful to the living things.
 TYPES OF CLIMATES

•Equatorial climate
• High mean annual temperature of about 270c
•Uniformly high temperature with only a small annual range of about 3 0c
•High relative humidity of about 80%
•Abundant rainfall of 2000mm on average
•Double maxima rainfall: Two packs of rainfall usually around April and October of each
year
•Rainfall accompanied by thunder and lighting
•Absence of distinct dry season.
•Well drained surfaces( for upland and inland rainforests although mangrove forests, able to
grow on water logged mudflat surface at the coast)
•
CONT’D

•Tropical climate
•There is aggregates variation in temperature and the total rainfall
decreases
•The influence of latitude is predominant in the northern hemisphere
•There is a series of tropical belts parallel to the equator
•The wet tropical climate is similar to the equatorial climate in the
copious amount of rainfall, but there are two dry seasons of
unequal duration
•Rainfall is less than 1500mm per year
CONT’D

• Mountain climate
• Very low temperatures near and at the tops of the
mountains.
• Decrease in atmospheric pressure as altitude increases.
• Relief rainfall on the windward side and dry leeward side.
CONT’D

• Desert climate
• Characteristics
• -Desert are either warm or cold. Most of deserts receive less than
250 mm per year of precipitation.
• -Deserts known lack of moisture.
• -Rare precipitation.
• Warm desert: temperature is high(+60 degrees)
• Cold desert: Temperature is low.(-10 degrees)
CONT’D

• Temperate climate
• Characteristics
• Summers are cool and wet with cold winter
• Polar climate: Temperature is low, presence of glaciers
due to low temperature. Precipitation is low.
CONT’D
CONT’D
CONT’D
 THE EARTH’S MOVEMENTS AND
THEIR CONSEQUENCES
• The earth is not static, it is moving. The earth turn on the polar axis and that
movement is called ‘rotation’ and it turns around the sun and that movement is
called ‘revolution’.
• The rotation and its consequences
• Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis. The earth turns on its axis from
west to the east.
• This movement is regular and it is done with the null speed at the poles ad with a
speed of 1676 km per hour at the equator. The earth completes one round in
23h56minutes which is taken as theday of 24 hours. One round of the earth is
completed after turning 3600
CONT’D

• Consequences of the earth’s rotation

The earth’s rotation has several consequences as:
 The deflection of winds and ocean currents
 The succession of day and night
 The determination of time
 The ocean tides
 CONT’D

•The revolution of the earth and its consequences

•Revolution is the movement of the earth around the sun. The earth turns
around the sun by describing an elliptic curve which of 149,598,600 km.
Sometimes, the earth is at its closest point to the sun (perihelion: 147,000,000
km) on 3rd January and another time, it is at the furthest point from the sun
(aphelion: 152,000,000 km) on 4th July. The earth is moving with equatorial
curve inclined on 230 30’ with the speed of 30 km/s during 365.2422 days. But
for each year, we consider 365 days and 366 days after 4 successive years
which is called a leap year
 CONT’D

•The movement of the earth around the sun has the following
consequences
• The modification of the inclination of solar radiation
• The variation of the length of day and night
• The determination of seasonal variation
• The determination of climatic zones
•The lunar and solar eclipse
• The determination of hours on the earth’s surface
 CONT’D

• The calculation of time

• It is possible to calculate the time between paces lying along different longitudes.
For example
• if town A is on longitude 500 east and the local time is 9.00. a.m., town B on
longitude 350 west will have its local and national time worked out as follows:
• Calculation of the local time
•  Difference in degrees between A and GMT in 500
•  Difference in time is 50 0 x 4 minutes = 200 minutes
•  Convert the minutes to hours by dividing 200 by 60= 3 hours 33 minutes
•  Since town X at Greenwich is to the west of town A to 3 hours 33 minutes is
 THE CALCULATION OF TIME

• It is possible to calculate the time between paces lying along different longitudes.
For example
• if town A is on longitude 500 east and the local time is 9.00. a.m., town B on
longitude 350 west will have its local and national time worked out as follows:
• Calculation of the local time
• Difference in degrees between A and GMT in 500
• Difference in time is 500 x 4 minutes = 200 minutes
• Convert the minutes to hours by dividing 200 by 60= 3 hours 33 minutes
• Since town X at Greenwich is to the west of town A to 3 hours 33 minutes is
subtracted from 9.00 a.m.
 CONT’D

• This gives the local time at town X at Greenwich as 9.00 a.m – 3 hours 33 minutes
= 5: 27 a.m
Calculation of the official time
 Each hour zone is made up of 150 which makes one hour
 The first hour zone is divided into two parts which makes 7.50 for each
 A is located in third hour zone from the Greenwich means that there is difference of
3 hours to G.MT.
 Since town A is to 3h00 to the East of GMT is subtracted from 9.00.a.m.
 This gives the national time at town X at Greenwich as 9.00. a.m – 3 hours = 6.00
a.m.
 CONT’D

1) If it is 11h am at London(prime meridian) calculate the hour of these following

place:
i) 75° E
ii) 75° w
iii) 42° E
iv) 45° W
 CONT’D

1) If it is 11h am at London(prime meridian) calculate the hour of these following

place:
i) 75° w
ii) 42° E
2) What is the difference of hours between:
i)134°w and 82°w
ii)154°W and 124°E
iii)55°w and 45°E
iv)111°w and 75°w
 REFERENCE

• Critchfield HJ(1966)general climatology.

• Embletone CM(1969)glacial and periglacial geomorphology’
• Eyre SR(1968)vegetation and soil
• Kendal H.M., Glendinning R.M., Macfadden C.h.(1967) introduction to
physical geography, 415p.
• Kiny H.G.(1969)the Antarctic.
• Lamb H.H. (1966)the changing climate.
• Machatschek F. (1974) Geomorphology.
Bruce A.B (1987), earthquakes, New York, 265 p.
• .
 CONT’D

• Emery M. Castle, Innovation in natural resource management: the

role of property rights the collective action in developing countries,
agricultural systems, vol.81, Issue 2, August 2004, 180-181.
• Lire Eersado,2002, natural resources management in African and
improving current practices, C.B Barrett, F. Place and A.A Aboud
(eds) ,CABI Publishing, New Work, 335 p, ISBN: 0-8519-9584-5
Prioul, C. et al.1981, Atlas du Rwanda, Kigali- Paris- Nantes.
• Randolph, J., 2004, Environmental Land Use Planning
Management, Island Press, Washington, 665 p.
 CONT’D

• Murphey R.A.(1961) an introduction to Geography.

• Newbigin M.I (1968) Plant and Animal Geography.

• Powers W.E.(1966) Physical Geography, 566.

• Richard J.C (1969) Water, Earth and Man.

• Richl H.(1965) Introdution to the Atmosphere. Sellers W.D. (1967) Physical climatology.

• Strahler A.N. (1965) Introduction to Physical Geography.

• Thornbury W.D.(1969) Principles of Geomorphology, 594p.

• Van Riper J.E (1968) Mans Physical World.

• Yasso W.E (1965) Oceannography.

EXERCISES

• Explain the formation of greenhouse effects ?

• Provide the characteristics of the climate exists in world ?