Polarization

AP10006 Physics II
Light & Optics, Electricity & Magnetism
1. Electric Fields
2. Gauss’s Law
3. Electric Potential
4. Capacitance & Dielectrics
5. Current & Resistance
6. Direct-Current circuits
Chapter 23

Electric Fields
• Properties of electric charges
• Charging objects by induction
• Coulomb’s law
• The electric field
• Electric field of a continuous charge distribution
• Electric field lines
• Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field
Electric Charges
There are two kinds of electric charges
 positive charges and negative charges
e.g.,
 Electrons carry negative charges
 Protons carry positive charges.
Charges of the same sign repel one another and charges with opposite signs
attract one another.

Electromagnetic Forces
The electromagnetic force between charged particles is one of the fundamental
forces of nature.

3 Introduction
Examples of Field Forces
 Field forces act through empty space
Electromagnetic Forces

Electric force Magnetic force

Gravitational force

Between two masses Between two Between two

electric charges magnets

4
 Electric Charges and forces

Charge of different signs Charge of same sign

The rubber rod is negatively charged The rubber rod is negatively charged.
and the glass rod positively charged. The second rubber rod is also negatively
The two rods will attract. charged. The two rods will repel.
5 Section 23.1
Electric Charges

Similar to mass, m, in classical mechanics, we use a symbol, q, for the

measure of charge that a piece of matter carries.
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb C.
 Mass m always has a positive value but charge q can be negative
 Electric charge exists as discrete packets in most situations. (Charges
are quantized.)
 It was discovered that charge of an object must be q = Ne, where
 N is an integer
 e = 1.6 x 10-19 C is the fundamental unit of charge
 One electron carries a charge of q = e
 One proton carries a charge of q = +e
 1 C needs 6.24 x 1018 electrons or protons
Particle Summary

mp = 1836.1 me
The electron and proton are identical in the magnitude of
mn = 1838.7 me
their charge, but very different in mass.
The proton and the neutron are similar in mass, but very
different in charge.

7 Section 23.3
Conservation of Electric Charges

Electric charge is always conserved in an isolated system.

◦ We cannot create charges but transfer

charges from one object to another.

Example: A glass rod is rubbed with silk

 Electrons (i.e., negative charges)
are transferred from the glass to
the silk.
 An equal positive charge is left on
the rod. http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/ht
ml/balloons-and-static-electricity
/latest/balloons-and-static-electri
city_en.html
Conductors
Electrical conductors are materials with free charges (electrons and ions).
 Free electrons are not bound to the atoms and can move relatively freely through
the material. Examples of good conductors include copper, aluminum and silver.
 When a good conductor is charged in a small region, the charge readily
distributes itself over the entire surface of the material.

Insulators
Electrical insulators are materials with no free charge.
 Electrons are bound and can not move relatively freely through the material.
 Examples of good insulators include glass, rubber and wood.
 When a good insulator is charged in a small region, the charge is unable to move
to other regions of the material.

9 Section 23.2
Semiconductors (Optional)

The electrical properties of semiconductors are somewhere between those of

insulators and conductors.
Examples of semiconductor materials include silicon and germanium.
 Semiconductors made from these materials are commonly used in making
electronic chips.
The electrical properties of semiconductors can be changed by the addition of
controlled amounts of certain atoms to the material.

10 Section 23.2
Charging a Conductor by Induction
A funny experiment: hairs standing up!

• Static charge transfer

• Electric repulsive force

12 Introduction
Charge Rearrangement in Insulators

 A process similar to induction can take

place in insulators.
 The charges within the molecules of the
material are rearranged.
 The proximity of the positive charges on
the surface of the object and the
negative charges on the surface of the
insulator results in an attractive force
between the object and the insulator.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B5LVoU_a08c

Coulomb’s Law

Charles Coulomb measured the

magnitudes of electric forces between
two small charged spheres.
The force is inversely proportional to
the square of the separation r between
the charges and directed along the line
joining them.
The force is proportional to the product
of the charges, q1 and q2, on the two
particles.
The electrical force between two
stationary point charges is given by
Coulomb’s Law.
Coulomb’s torsion balance,
used to establish the
14 Section 23.3 inverse square law.
Coulomb’s Law, cont.

Mathematically, the magnitude of the force between two stationary charges is

𝐹 𝑒=𝑘𝑒 ¿𝑞1∨∨𝑞2∨ ¿2 ¿ m1m2 Newton’s Law of

𝑟 Fg  G
r2 Universal Gravitation
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb C.
 ke = 8.9876 x 109 N.m2/C2 = 1/(4peo) is called the Coulomb constant.
 eo = 8.8542 x 10-12 C2 / N.m2 is the permittivity of free space.

Remember the charges need to be in coulombs. e is the smallest unit of charge

except quarks. Since e = 1.6 x 10-19 C, so 1 C needs 6.24 x 1018 electrons or protons.
Typical charges can be in the µC range.
Remember that force is a vector quantity.

15 Section 23.3
Vector Nature of Electric Forces
In vector form, the force between charges is
 q1q2
F12  ke 2 r̂12
r
is a unit vector directed from q1 to q2.
(a) The like charges produce a repulsive force
between them.
(b) The unlike charges produce an attractive
force between them.

Electrical forces obey Newton’s Third Law.

The force on q1 is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the force on q2
 
F 21  F12
With like signs for the charges, the
product q1q2 is positive and the force is
16 repulsive. Section 23.3
Multiple Charges
The resultant force on any one charge equals the vector sum of the forces
exerted by the other individual charges that are present.
 Remember to add the forces as vectors.
For example, if four charges are present, the resultant force on one of these
equals the vector sum of the forces exerted on it by each of the other charges.
   
F1 F 21  F 31  F 41

17 Section 23.3
Example 23.4 Finding the Charge on the Spheres

The spheres are in equilibrium.

Since they are separated, they exert a repulsive
force on each other.
 Charges are like charges
Model each sphere as a particle in equilibrium.
Proceed as usual with equilibrium problems,
noting one force is an electrical force.
 Electrical Force with Other Forces, Example
The force diagram includes the components of the tension,
the electric force, and the gravity force.
Note that you cannot determine the sign of q, only that they
both have the same sign.

q2
Fe  ke 2
r

19 Section 23.3
Electric Field – Definition
An electric field is said to exist in the region of space around a charged object.
 This charged object is the source charge.
When another charged object, the test charge, enters this electric field, an
electric force acts on it.
The electric field is defined as the electric force on the test charge per unit charge.

The electric field vector, E , at a point in space is defined as the electric force
acting on a positive test charge, qo, placed at that point divided by the test charge:

⃗
𝐅
⃗
𝐄≡
𝑞𝑜
The SI unit of is N/C (or more often V/m)

 Fg
Gravitational Field g 
m
20 Section 23.4
Electric Field, Notes

E is the field produced by some charge or charge distribution, separate
from the test charge.
The existence of an electric field is a property of the source charge.
 The presence of the test charge is not necessary for the field to exist.
The test charge serves as a detector of the field.


The direction of E is that of the force on a
positive test charge.
We can also say that an electric field exists at a
point if a test charge at that point experiences an
electric force.

21 Section 23.4
Relationship Between F and E
 
For a point charge (zero size) F  qE
If q is positive, the force and the field are in the same direction.
If q is negative, the force and the field are in opposite directions.

Electric Field, Vector Form

Remember Coulomb’s law, between the source and test charges, can be
expressed as 𝑞 𝑞𝑜
⃗
𝐅 𝑒=𝑘𝑒 𝐫^
2
𝑟
Then, the electric field will be
⃗𝑒
𝐅 𝑞
⃗
𝐄= =𝑘𝑒 2 𝐫^
𝑞𝑜 𝑟
22 Section 23.4
More About Electric Field Direction
a) q is positive, the force is directed away from q.
b) The direction of the field is also away from the positive source charge.
c) q is negative, the force is directed toward q.
d) The field is also toward the negative source charge.

23 Section 23.4
 Electric Fields from Multiple Charges

• At any point P, the total electric field due to a

group of source charges equals the vector
sum of the electric fields of all the charges.

⃗
𝐄=∑ ⃗
𝐄𝑖
𝑖
𝑞𝑖
¿ 𝑘𝑒 ∑ 2
𝐫^ 𝑖
𝑖 𝑟𝑖

The figure represent the vector sum of the

electric field produced by two points charges.
Electric Field – Field Pattern
The electric field is a vector field representing the electric force per unit charge.
It can also be represented as a distributed vectors at various locations.
In the following example, the vectors represent the total electric field
strengths and directions at the rectangular sampling points.

⃗
𝐄(𝑥 , 𝑦 )
+

-
+
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xg0Lg-uSMS
Q
Electric Field Lines
Field lines give us a means of representing the electric field pictorially.
Direction of E ： Tangent to the electric field line at each point.
 The line has a direction that is the same as that of the electric field vector.
Magnitude of E : The number of lines per unit area through a surface
perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the magnitude of the electric
field in that region.

The density of lines through surface A is greater than

through surface B:
=> The magnitude of the electric field is greater on
surface A than B.
The lines at different locations point in different
directions.
 This indicates the field is nonuniform.

26 Section 23.6
Electric Field Lines, Positive Point Charge
The field lines radiate outward in all directions.
 In three dimensions, the distribution is spherical.
The lines are directed away from the source charge.
 A positive test charge would be repelled away
from the positive source charge.

The field lines radiate inward in all directions.

The lines are directed toward the source charge.
 A positive test charge would be attracted
toward the negative source charge.

27 Section 23.6
Electric Field Lines – Rules for Drawing

The lines must begin on a positive charge and terminate on a negative charge.
 In the case of an excess of one type of charge, some lines will begin or
end infinitely far away.
The number of lines drawn leaving a positive charge or approaching a negative
charge is proportional to the magnitude of the charge. ⃗
𝐅 𝑞 ^
⃗
𝐄=
𝑒
=𝑘𝑒 𝐫
No two field lines can cross. 𝑞𝑜 2
𝑟
Remember field lines are not material objects, they are a pictorial
representation used to qualitatively describe the electric field.

28 Section 23.6
 Electric Field Lines – Dipole, Like Dipoles, Unequal Charges

Equal and opposite charges. Equal and positive charges. The The positive charge is twice the
The number of field lines same number of lines leave each magnitude of the negative
leaving the positive charge charge since they are equal in charge. Two lines leave the
equals the number of lines magnitude. At a great distance, the positive charge and one of
them terminates on the
terminating on the negative field is approximately equal to that of
negative charge. At a great
charge. a single charge of 2q. Since there distance, the field would be
are no negative charges available, approximately the same as that
the field lines end infinitely far away. due to a single charge of +q.
29
Motion of Charged Particles
When a charged particle is placed in an electric field, it experiences an electrical
force.
If this is the only force on the particle, it must be the net force.
The net force will cause the particle to accelerate according to Newton’s second law.

If the field is uniform, then the acceleration is constant.

The particle under constant acceleration model can be applied to the motion of
the particle.
 The electric force causes a particle to move according to the models of
forces and motion.
If the particle has a positive charge, its acceleration is in the direction of the field.
If the particle has a negative charge, its acceleration is in the direction opposite
the electric field.

30 Section 23.7
Electron in a Uniform Field (Ex. 23.10)

31 Section 23.7
Cont. Electron in a Uniform Field (Ex. 23.10)

The electron is projected horizontally into a uniform

electric field.
The electron undergoes a downward acceleration.
 It is negative, so the acceleration is opposite
the direction of the field.
Its motion is parabolic while between the plates.

32 Section 23.7
Electric Field – Continuous Charge Distribution, only concepts are required

A continuous object can have distributed charges with varying

charge densities at different locations.
Procedures in finding the total electric field at point P:
 Divide the charge distribution into small elements,
each of which contains Δq.
 Calculate the electric field due to one of these
elements at point P.
 Evaluate the total field by summing the
contributions of all the charge elements.

Equations:
 q
For the individual charge elements  E  k e 2
rˆ
r
Because the charge distribution is continuous
 q i dq
E  ke lim
qi  0

i ri
2
ri  ke  2 rˆ
ˆ
r
This becomes an integration.
33 More details are provided next.
Charge Densities
Volume charge density (ρ): when a charge is distributed evenly throughout a
volume
 ρ ≡ Q/V with units C/m3
Surface charge density (σ): when a charge is distributed evenly over a surface
area
 σ ≡ Q/A with units C/m2
Linear charge density (λ): when a charge is distributed along a line
 λ ≡ Q/ℓ with units C/m

Amount of Charge in a Small Volume

If the charge is uniformly distributed over a volume, surface, or line, the amount
of charge, dq, is given by
 For the volume: dq = ρ dV ( in Cartesian coordinates)
 For the surface: dq = σ dA ( for surface in xy-plane)
 For the length element: dq = λ dℓ ( for line along x-direction)
34 Section 23.5
Problem-Solving Strategy
Conceptualize
 Establish a mental representation of the problem.
 Imagine the electric field produced by the charges or charge distribution.
Categorize
 Individual charge? Group of individual charges? Continuous distribution of charges?

Analyze
 Analyzing a group of individual charges:
 Use the superposition principle, find the fields due to the individual charges at the
point of interest and then add them as vectors to find the resultant field.
 Analyzing a continuous charge distribution:
 The vector sums for evaluating the total electric field at some point must be
replaced with vector integrals.
 Divide the charge distribution into infinitesimal pieces, calculate the vector sum by
integrating over the entire charge distribution.
 Symmetry: Taking advantage of any symmetry to simplify calculations.

35 Section 23.5
 A few terminologies in Definite Integral and a few examples of
indefinite integral y
y = f(x) = x
b
f ( x)dx  F ( x)a  F (b)  F (a )
b
a

f ( x) is called integrand;
F(x) is called integral function; x
a b
f ( x) is the derivative of F(x);
The shadowed area:
[a, b] is the integral range. b b  a b2  a2
 a
f ( x)dx  ( a  b)
2

2
1 1 n 1 1 11 b 1 2
 b  a 2 
 x dx  ln (x)  dx 
n b
x x  xdx 
11
x
a 2
n 1 a

 sin xdx   cos x Visit section B.7 of the following page for a summary:
http://www.webassign.net/pse/AppendixB.pdf
 cos xdx  sin x
36 Section 23.5
Example – Charged Rod
The rod of length has a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q. Calculate the
electric field at a point P that is located along the long axis of rod and a distance a from one
end.

Conceptualize: The field dE at point P due to each segment of charge on the rod is in
the negative x direction because every segment carries a positive charge.
Categorize: The continuous rod results in the field produced by a continuous charge
distribution; each segment produces a field in the same direction, -x.
Analyze: Choose dq as a segment of the rod. The segment has a length of dx.By
symmetry, the field at an axial point must be along the central axis.

dq  dx
dq dx 1 n 1
dE  ke  k
 dx 
n
x2
e
x2 x x
n 1
la dx l  a dx
E   ke  2  k e  
a x a x2
 1 Q 1 1  k eQ
 ke    la a  k e   
 x l  a l  a  a (l  a)
Example – Charged Disk (optional)
The disk has a radius R and a uniform charge density σ. Calculate the
electric field at position P on the central axis.
Choose dq as a ring of radius r. The ring has a surface area 2πr dr.
By symmetry, the field at an axial point must be along the central axis.
dq  dA   (2rdr )  2rdr
dq
dE x  k e cos  1 n 1
 dx 
n
y2 x x
n 1
cos   x / y  x /( x 2  r 2 )1/ 2
y dq 2rdr
dE x  k e cos   k e x
y2 ( x 2  r 2 )3 / 2
R 2rdr R
E x  k e x  2 2 3 / 2
 k e x  ( x 2  r 2 ) 3 / 2 d (r 2 )
0 (x  r ) 0

( x 2  r 2 ) 1/ 2 R  x 
 ke x 0  2ke 1  2 2 1/ 2 
1/ 2  (x  R ) 
38 Section 23.5