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 PHYSICS FOR COMPUTER
SCIENCE AND INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
21PH101

UNIT II

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS

Department: FIRST SEMESTER – CSE, IT

Batch/Year : 2021-2022 / I

Created by : DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, RMDEC

Date : 08-11-2021
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S. No. CONTENTS

1 Course Objectives

2 Prerequisites

3 Syllabus

4 Course Outcomes

5 CO - PO/PSO Mapping

6 Lecture Plan

7 Activity Based Learning

Lecture Notes: Unit – II Magnetic Properties of Materials

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Magnetic Dipole Moment

2.3 Atomic Magnetic Moment

2.4 Magnetic Permeability and Susceptibility

2.5 Magnetic Material Classification

8 2.6 Diamagnetism

2.7 Paramagnetism

2.8 Ferromagnetism

2.9 Antiferromagnetism

2.10 Ferrimagnetism

2.11 Ferromagnetism: Domain Theory

2.12 M Versus H Behaviour

S. No. CONTENTS

2.13 Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials – Examples and Uses

2.14 Magnetic Principle in Computer Data Storage

2.15 Magnetic Hard Disc Drive

2.16 Introduction to Spintronics

8
Key Points to Remember

Solved Problems

Other Learning Materials

Comprehensive Quiz

9 Assignment

10 Part A – Questions with Answers

11 Part B – Questions

12 Supportive Online Certification Courses

13 Real Time Applications in Day to Day Life and to Industry

14 Contents Beyond the Syllabus

15 Prescribed Textbooks and Reference Books

16 Mini Project Suggestions

 COURSE OBJECTIVES

1. To learn the fundamental concepts of physics and apply this

knowledge to scientific, engineering and technological
problems.

2. To make the students enrich basic knowledge in electronics

and quantum concepts and apply the same in computing
fields.
 PREREQUISITES

1. Awareness of basic concepts of physics at higher secondary

school level.
2. Fundamental knowledge in mathematics on topics like
calculus (differentiation, integration), trigonometry and
geometry.
3. Trusting your intuition by applying basic common sense
4. Conceptual learning
5. Passion for understanding how things work, enjoy playing
with ideas
 SYLLABUS
COURSE CODE PHYSICS FOR COMPUTER SCIENCE AND L T P C
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
21PH101 (Common to CSE & IT) 3 0 0 3

UNIT I LASER AND FIBRE OPTICS 9

     
Population of energy levels – Einstein’s A and B coefficients derivation - Resonant
cavity - Optical amplification (qualitative) - Semiconductor lasers: homojunction and
heterojunction - Engineering applications of lasers in data storage (qualitative).
Fibre optics: Principle, numerical aperture and acceptance angle -V-number - Types
of optical fibres (Material, refractive index and mode) - Losses in optical fibre - Fibre
optic communication - Fibre optic sensors (pressure and displacement).
 
UNIT II MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9
     
Magnetic dipole moment - atomic magnetic moments - Origin of magnetic moments-
Magnetic permeability and susceptibility - Magnetic material classifications-
Diamagnetism – Paramagnetism - Ferromagnetism –Antiferromagnetism -
Ferrimagnetism - Ferromagnetism: Domain Theory- M versus H behaviour - Hard and
soft magnetic materials - Examples and uses - Magnetic principle in computer data
storage - Magnetic hard disc (GMR sensor) - Introduction to Spintronics.
 
UNIT III ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9
     
Classical free electron theory - Expression for electrical conductivity – Thermal
conductivity expression - Wiedemann-Franz law - Success and failures of CFT -
Particle in a three dimensional box - Degenerate states - Effect of temperature on
Fermi function - Density of energy states and average energy of electron at 0 K -
Energy bands in solids.
UNIT IV SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS 9
     
Intrinsic Semiconductors – Energy band diagram - Direct and indirect band gap
semiconductors - Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors- Band gap
determination-Extrinsic semiconductors - n-type and p-type semiconductors
(qualitative) - Variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity concentration -
Hall effect and its applications.
 
UNIT V  INTRODUCTION TO NANO DEVICES AND QUANTUM 9
COMPUTING
     
Introduction to nanomaterial -Electron density in bulk material - Size dependence of
Fermi energy - Quantum confinement - Quantum structures - Density of states in
quantum well, quantum wire and quantum dot structure - Band gap of nanomaterial-
Tunneling: single electron phenomena and single electron transistor - Quantum dot
laser. Quantum computing: Introduction - Differences between quantum and classical
computation.
 
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
 COURSE OUTCOMES

On completion of this course, the students will gain knowledge and will be able to

CO1: Know the principle, construction and working of lasers and their
applications in fibre optic communication.

C02: Understand the magnetic properties of materials and their specific

applications in computer data storage.

C03: Analyze the classical and quantum electron theories and energy band
structures.

C04: Evaluate the conducting properties of semiconductors its applications in

various devices.

C05: Comprehend the knowledge on quantum confinement effects.

C06: Apply optical, magnetic, conducting properties of material, quantum

concepts at the nanoscale in various applications.
 CO – PO/PSO MAPPING

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
COs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

CO1 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO2 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO3 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO4 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO5 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO6 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -
 LECTURE PLAN
No. Mode
S. Propos Actual Taxon
Topics to be of Pertain of
No ed Lecture omy
Covered Peri ing CO Delive
. Date Date Level
ods ry
Magnetic
PPT,
moments and
1 1 CO2 K1 Chalk
atomic magnetic
& Talk
moments
Origin of
magnetic
PPT,
moments
2 1 CO2 K2 Chalk
Magnetic
& Talk
permeability and
susceptibility
Classification –
Dia-, Para-, Ferro, PPT,
3 Antiferro- and 1 CO2 K1 Chalk
Ferrimagnetic & Talk
material
Domain theory PPT,
4 and 1 CO2 K2 Chalk
M Vs H behavoiur & Talk
Hard and soft PPT,
5 magnetic 1 CO2 K1 Chalk
materials & Talk
Magnetic principle PPT,
6 in computer data 1 CO2 K1, K2 Chalk
storage & Talk
PPT,
Magnetic hard
7 1 CO2 K1, K2 Chalk
disc (GMR sensor)
& Talk
PPT,
Introduction to
8 1 CO2 K1, K2 Chalk
spintronics
& Talk
PPT,
9 Problems 1 CO2 K2 Chalk
& Talk
 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

S. NAME OF THE
ACTIVITY LEARNING OUTCOME
No. ACTIVITY
Learners can
List out 10 to 15 items that understand:
Magnetic you use everyday and  Examples of magnetic
1
materials classify them into magnetic materials
and non-magnetic materials  Examples of non-
magnetic materials

Learners will be able to

List out some of the
Magnetic learn the applications of
common applications of
2 materials in our magnetic materials in
magnetic materials in our
daily life memory systems and
daily life.
data storage

Explore the Hall effect and

build a circuit that works
as a magnetic field
detector so they can Relate the strength of
Measure measure the strength of a the magnetic field with
3 magnetic field and see the distance between
Magnetic Field
how the strength of the magnets
field changes with
distance.
https://www.sciencebuddi
es.org/science-fair-project
s/project-ideas/Elec_p030/
electricity-electronics/mea
sure-magnetic-fields?from
=Blog
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Any materials that can be magnetized by an applied external magnetic field is called
a magnetic material. Magnetic material can be easily magnetized because they have
permanent or induced magnetic moment in the presence of applied magnetic field.
Magnetism arises from the magnetic moment or magnetic dipole of the magnetic
material. Among the different eleven types of magnetic materials, only few magnetic
materials are important for practical applications.

2.1.1 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

i. Magnetic flux ()

Total number of magnetic lines of force passing through a surface is known as

magnetic flux. It is represented by the symbol ‘’ and its unit is weber.

ii. Magnetic flux density (or) Magnetic induction ()

Magnetic flux density at any point is the total magnetic lines passing normally
through a unit area of cross section A at that point. It is denoted by the symbol and
its unit is Weber/m2 or Tesla.

iii. Intensity of magnetization ()

The intensity of magnetisation () is the measure of the magnetisation of a

magnetized specimen. It is defined as the magnetic moment () per unit volume ()
and its unit is ampere turns per metre, i.e., Am -1.

iv. Magnetic field intensity (or) magnetic field strength (H)

Magnetic field intensity at any point in a magnetic field is the force experienced by a
unit north pole placed at that point. It is denoted by H and its unit is Newton per
Weber (N/Wb) or ampere turns per metre (Am -1).

v. Retentivity (or) Remanence

When the external magnetic field is applied to a magnetic material is removed, the
magnetic material will not lose its magnetic property immediately. There exits some
residual intensity of magnetization in the specimen even when the magnetic field is
cut off. This is called residual magnetism (or) retentivity.

vi. Coercivity

The residual magnetism can be completely removed from the material by applying a
reverse magnetic field. Hence, coercivity of the magnetic material is the strength of
reverse magnetic field (–Hc) which is used to completely demagnetize the material.

2.2 MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

A system having two opposite magnetic poles separated by a distance is called as a
magnetic dipole. If ‘’ is magnetic pole strength and ‘’ is the length of the magnet,
then its dipole moment is given by

2.3 ATOMIC MAGNETIC MOMENT

2.3.1 ORIGIN OF MAGNETIC MOMENT

Any matter is basically made up of atoms. The property of magnetism is exhibited by

certain materials with the magnetic property of its constituent atoms. We know that
electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in different orbits.

Let us consider an electron of charge orbiting around a nucleus in a circle of radius

with a velocity . This orbiting motion of the electron constitute a current
𝑴 𝒊

+ 𝒓

𝑳
Fig. 2.1 (a) Electron as a magnetic dipole (b) Electron orbiting around
a nucleus
loop which is be given by
𝑒𝑣
𝑖= −
2 𝜋 𝑟 …(2.1)

Associated with any current loop is the magnetic dipole moment. Magnetic dipole
moment is a product of the current and the area of the loop, i.e.,
𝑀 = 𝑖𝐴…(2.2)
On substituting for the area and eqn. (2.1) for the current , the eqn. (2.2) becomes

𝑒𝑣
𝑀 =− ( 𝜋 𝑟 2 ) =− 𝑒𝑣𝑟
… (2.3)
2 𝜋 𝑟 2
On multiplying the mass of the electron both in the numerator and the denominator
of eqn. (2.3), we get

𝑒𝑚𝑣𝑟 …(2.4)
𝑀 =−
2 𝑚
But, for a particle of mass , which is moving in a circle of radius with a velocity , the
angular momentum is given as

𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟…(2.5)
On using eqn. (2.5) in eqn. (2.4) we get
𝑒 …(2.6)
𝑀 =− 𝐿
2 𝑚
The above eqn. (2.6) relates the magnetic dipole moment to the angular momentum
of a charged particle, in general. We shall use the above eqn. (2.6) to understand the
magnetic dipole moments of an atom. But, from the principles of quantum mechanics,
the angular momentum is identified to be quantized. It is expressed in integer
multiples of .

Basically, there are three contributions for the magnetic dipole moment of an atom as
shown in Fig. 2.2.
 The orbital angular momentum of electrons in the atom contributes to the
orbital magnetic moment.
 The spin angular momentum of the electrons contributes to the electron spin
magnetic moment of the atom.
 The nuclear spin angular momentum, which is due to the nucleons,
contributes to the nuclear spin magnetic moment of the atom. But, since the mass
of the nucleons are 103 times larger than the electrons, the nuclear spin
 Fig. 2.2 Magnetic Moment Contributions

magnetic moment is 103 times smaller than the electron spin magnetic moment. So,
the contribution of nuclear magnetic moment is neglected when dealing with atomic
magnetic moments.

2.3.2 BOHR MAGNETON

The magnetic moment contributed by an electron with angular momentum quantum
number n = 1 is known as Bohr Magneton.

Its value is 9.274 x 10-24 A m2.

2.4 MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY AND SUSCEPTIBILITY

2.4.1 MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY (μ)
Magnetic permeability of a substance measure the degree to which the magnetic field
can penetrate through the substance. It is found that magnetic flux density () is
directly proportional to the magnetic field strength ().

where μ is a constant of proportionality and it is known as permeability or absolute

permeability of the medium. From this, the permeability is given as . Hence, the
permeability of a substance is the ratio of the magnetic flux density () inside the
substance to the magnetic field intensity ().

2.4.2 ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY

Absolute permeability of a medium or material is defined as the product of
permeability of free space () and the relative permeability of the medium ().
2.4.3 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY OF MEDIUM ()

Relative permeability of a medium is defined as the ratio between absolute

permeability of a medium to the permeability of a free space.

2.4.4 MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY ()

Magnetic susceptibility () of a specimen is the ease in which a material can be

magnetized in a magnetic field. It is the ratio of intensity of magnetisation () induced
in it to the magnetizing field ().

=

2.5 MAGNETIC MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION

Magnetic materials are classified into two broad categories based on existence
of permanent magnetic dipole moments and the response of the magnetic material
to the external magnetic fields as depicted in Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.3 Classification of magnetic materials

 Fig. 2.4 Behaviour of diamagnetic materials in a magnetic field

2.6 DIAMAGNETISM
Diamagnetism is exhibited by all the materials. The atoms in the diamagnetic
materials do not possess permanent magnetic moment. However, when a material is
placed in a magnetic field, the electrons in the atomic orbits tend to counteract the
external magnetic field and the atoms acquire an induced magnetic moment. As a
result, the material becomes magnetized. The direction of the induced dipole
moment is opposite to that of externally applied magnetic field. Due to this effect,
the material gets very weakly repelled, in the magnetic field as seen in Fig. 2.4. This
phenomenon is known as diamagnetism.

When a magnetic field H 0 is applied the atoms acquire an induced magnetic

moment in the opposite direction to that of the field. The strength of the induced
magnetic moment is proportional to the applied field, and hence, magnetization of
the material varies directly with the strength of the magnetic field.

2.6.1 PROPERTIES OF DIAMAGNETIC MATERIAL

 Diamagnetic material repels the magnetic lines of force.

 The behaviour of diamagnetic material in the presence of magnetic field. There

is no permanent dipole moment. Therefore, the magnetic effects are very
small.
 The magnetic susceptibility is negative and it is independent of temperature
and applied magnetic field strength as shown in Fig. 2.5.
 Fig. 2.5 Variation of (a) magnetization with applied field and (b)
susceptibility with temperature

2.7 PARAMAGNETISM
In certain materials, each atom or molecule possesses a net permanent
magnetic moment (due to orbital and spin magnetic moment) even in the absence of
an external magnetic field.

The magnetic moments are randomly oriented in the absence of external

magnetic field. Therefore, the net magnetic moment is zero, and hence, the
magnetization of the material is zero.

But, when an external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipoles tend to
align themselves in the direction of the magnetic field and the material becomes
magnetized as seen in Fig. 2.6. This effect is known as paramagnetism.

Fig. 2.6 Magnetic moments in a paramagnetic materials in absence

and presence of magnetic field
 Fig. 2.7 Variation of: (a) magnetization with applied field (b)  with
temperature, and (c) 1/ with temperature in paramagnetic materials
Thermal agitation disturbs the alignment of the magnetic moments. With an increase
in temperature, the increase in thermal agitation tends to randomize the dipole
direction; thus, leading to a decrease in magnetization. This indicates that the
paramagnetic susceptibility decreases with increases in temperature. It is noted that
the paramagnetic susceptibility varies inversely with temperature as seen in Fig. 2.7.

(or) C
1
𝜒 =
𝜒 ∝ 𝑇
𝑇
This is known as Curie law of paramagnetism, and C is a constant called Curie
constant.

2.7.1 PROPERTIES OF PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

 Paramagnetic materials attract magnetic lines of force as seen in Fig. 2.8.

 They possess permanent dipole moment.

 The susceptibility is positive and depends on temperature

Example- Manganese sulphate, ferric oxide, ferrous sulphate, nickel sulphate, etc.

Fig. 2.8 Behaviour of paramagnetic materials in a magnetic field

2.8 FERROMAGNETISM
Certain materials like iron, cobalt, nickel and certain alloys exhibit high degree
of magnetization. These materials show spontaneous magnetization i.e., they have
small amount of magnetization even in the absence of external magnetic field. This
indicates that there is strong internal field within the material which makes atomic
magnetic moments to align with each other. This phenomenon is known as
ferromagnetism.

2.8.1 PROPERTIES OF FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

 All the dipoles are aligned parallel to each other due to the magnetic interaction
between the two dipoles.
 They have permanent dipole moment. They are strongly attracted by the
magnetic field as seen in Fig. 2.9(a).
 They exhibit magnetization even in the absence of magnetic field. This property
of ferromagnetic material is called as spontaneous magnetization.
 The susceptibility is very high as shown in Fig. 2.9(b).

 They exhibit hysteresis curve.

 On heating, they lose their magnetization slowly.

Fig. 2.9 (a) Behaviour of ferromagnetic materials in a magnetic field (b)

Variation of susceptibility with temperature
 At very large temperatures, a ferromagnetic material will transform into a
paramagnetic material where in paramagnetic region the dependence of
susceptibility on temperature is given by Curie Weiss law which is given by for
𝑇 > 𝜃 where 𝜃 is the Curie temperature.

COMPARISON CHART

S. DIAMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC FERROMAGNETIC

NO. MATERIAL MATERIAL MATERIAL

In a diamagnetic
In ferromagnetic
material, there are In paramagnetic
material, there will be
equal numbers of material, there is
large number of
electron spins which unequal number of
unequal electron spins,
1 are oriented electron spins, and
and hence, there exists
randomly, and hence, there exists a
enormous amount of
hence, the net permanent magnetic
permanent magnetic
magnetic moment is moment.
moment.
zero.

When the external

magnetic field is When the external
When the external
applied, the electrons magnetic field is
magnetic field is
will align anti-parallel applied, the electrons
applied, the electrons
to the applied which are already
will align parallel to
magnetic field, and aligned parallel will
2 the field direction, and
hence, it reduces the reorient itself along the
hence, the material is
magnetic induction field direction and will
magnetized. Thus,
present in the get magnetized easily.
they are named as
material. Thus, they Thus, they are named
strong magnets.
are named as weak as very strong magnets.
magnets.
S. DIAMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC FERROMAGNETIC
NO. MATERIAL MATERIAL MATERIAL

When the material is When the material is When the material is

placed in the placed in the magnetic placed in the magnetic
magnetic field, the field, the magnetic field, the magnetic flux
magnetic flux lines flux lines passes lines are highly
3 are repelled from the through the material. attracted towards the
material. centre of the material.

The susceptibility is The susceptibility is

The susceptibility is
4 positive and small ( positive and large ( =
negative ( = –ve).
= +ve). +ve).

The susceptibility
The susceptibility is The susceptibility
varies inversely with
5 independent of depends upon the
the absolute
temperature. temperature.
temperature.

Permeability is less Permeability is greater Permeability is very

6
than 1. than 1. much greater than 1.

When temperature is
When the temperature When temperature is
less than the critical
is less than the Curie greater than the Curie
temperature, the
temperature, temperature, the
7 diamagnetism
paramagnetic material ferromagnetic material
suddenly disappears
is converted into is converted into
and becomes a
diamagnetic material. paramagnetic material.
normal material.

Examples: Gold, Examples: Platinum,

antimony, bismuth, chromium, aluminium,
Examples: Iron, nickel,
8 water, hydrogen, copper sulphate,
cobalt, Steel, etc.
alcohol, germanium, manganese sulphate,
silicon, etc. etc.
2.9 ANTIFERROMAGNETISM
Antiferromagnetic materials are magnetic materials which exhibit a small positive
susceptibility of the order of 10 -3 to 10-5. In antiferromagnetic materials, the
susceptibility increases with increasing temperature and it reaches maximum at a
certain temperature called Neel Temperature, T N. With further increase in
temperature, the material reaches the paramagnetic state. The material is
antiferromagnetic below TN.

2.9.1 PROPERTIES OF ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

 The electron spin of neighbouring atoms are aligned antiparallel. (i.e.) the spin
alignment is antiparallel as seen in Fig. 2.10.

Fig. 2.10 Dipole alignment in antiferromagnetic materials

 Antiferromagnetic susceptibility is mainly depends on temperature.

 The susceptibility of the antiferromagnetic material is small and positive. It is

given by
; When 𝑇 > 𝑇N

; When 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑁

 The susceptibility initially increases slightly with the temperature and beyond
Neel temperature, the susceptibility decreases with temperature as seen in Fig.
2.11.

Fig. 2.11 Variation of: (a)  with temperature and (b) 1/ with
temperature in antiferromagnetic materials
2.10 FERRIMAGNETISM
These materials have anti-parallel magnetic moments of different magnitudes, giving
rise to fairly large magnetic moment in the presence of external magnetic field. Spin
alignment is antiparallel of different magnitudes as shown Fig. 2.12.

Fig. 2.12 Dipole alignment in ferrimagnetic materials

The susceptibility is very large and positive. It is represented by

for 𝑇 > TN

where TN is the Neel temperature. Beyond the Neel temperature,  decreases.

2.10.1 STRUCTURE OF FERRITES

Ferrites are the magnetic compounds consisting of two or more different kinds of
atoms. Generally ferrites are expressed as X 2+ Fe3+ O42-, where X2+ stands for suitable
divalent metal ion such as Mg 2+, Zn2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Ni2+ etc. Ferrites formed usually
have a face centred cubic structure of oxygen ions closely packed together with the
divalent and trivalent metal ions in the interstitial sites. This structure is called spinel
structure.

There are two types of ferrite structures which are as follows

i. Regular spinel

ii. Inverse spinel

Fig. 2.13 (a) Tetrahedral site (b) Octahedral site

Regular spinel

For the regular spinel structure shown in Fig. 2.13 (c), each metal atom X 2+
(divalent) is surrounded by four O 2- ions in a tetrahedral fashion as shown in Fig.
2.13 (a). Each Fe3+ (trivalent) is surrounded by six O 2- ions and forms an octahedral
fashion as shown in Fig. 2.13 (b).

Fig. 2.13 (c) Regular Spinel Structure

2.10.2 PROPERTIES OF FERRITES

 Ferrites have net magnetic moment.

 Above Curie temperature, it becomes paramagnetic, while it behaves

ferromagnetic material below Curie temperature.

 The susceptibility of ferrite is very large and positive.

 At high temperatures, above TN, a ferrite would transform into a paramagnetic

material. The dependence of susceptibility with temperature of ferrite in the

paramagnetic state is given by
for 𝑇 > TN

 Mechanically, it has pure iron character.

  They have high permeability and resistivity.
 They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses.

2.10.3 APPLICATIONS
 They are used to produce ultrasonic waves by magnetostriction principle.
 Ferrites are used in audio and video transforms.
 Ferrite rods are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity.
 They are also used in power limiting and harmonic generation.
 They are used in computers and data processing circuits.
 Ferrites are used in paramagnetic amplifiers so that the input can be amplified
with low noise.
 Ferrites are used in storage devices such as magnetic tapes, floppy discs, hard
discs, ferrite core memories and in bubble memories.

2.11 FERROMAGNETISM: DOMAIN THEORY

We can observe that ferromagnetic materials such as iron do not have
magnetization unless they have been previously placed in an external magnetic field.
But according to Weiss theory, the molecular magnets in the ferromagnetic material are
said to be aligned in such way that, they exhibit magnetization even in the absence of
external magnetic field. This is called spontaneous magnetization. (i.e.) it should have
some internal magnetization due to quantum exchange energy.
According to Weiss hypothesis, a single crystal of ferromagnetic material is
divided into large number of small regions called domains. These domains have
spontaneous magnetization due to the parallel alignment of spin magnetic moments in
each atom. But, the direction of spontaneous magnetization varies from domain to
domain and is oriented in such way that the net magnetization of the specimen is zero.
The boundaries separating the domains are called domain walls. These domain
walls are analogous to the grain boundaries in a polycrystalline material.

2.11.1 DOMAIN MAGNETIZATION

i. In the absence of the field

Magnetic dipoles are aligned in parallel manner inside the domain. This is called
spontaneous magnetization. The direction of spontaneous magnetization varies from
domain to domain as seen in Fig. 2.14 (a). Therefore, the net magnetization is zero.
 Fig. 2.14 (a) Random domain alignment, (b) Domain wall movement,
(c) Domain rotation

ii. In the presence of the field

When the external field is applied, the following two possible alignments occur.
a) Motion of domain walls

When the applied field is weak, volume of the domain, which is in the direction
of the external field, gets increased at the expense of others as shown in Fig.
2.14 (b).
b) Rotation of domains

When the external field is strong, direction of all the magnetic dipoles in all the
domains get shifted along the direction of the external field as shown Fig. 2.14
(c).

2.11.2 ENERGIES INVOLVED IN DOMAIN GROWTH

To study the domain structure clearly, we must know four types of energy involved
in the process of domain growth. They are:

1. Magnetostatic energy

2. Exchange energy

3. Anisotropy energy

4. Domain wall energy

5. Magnetostrictive energy
1. Magnetostatic Energy
Interaction energy between two adjacent dipoles which comes into play when these
adjacent dipoles align opposite to each other is the magnetostatic energy.
Multiple magnetic domains form within one material because it is energetically
unfavorable to have one uniform domain, so the magnetic moments split into
multiple domains to minimize the internal energy of the system as shown in Fig.
2.15.
The external field is completely gone due to the introduction of closure domains.
There are now domains pointing in directions that are not along the easy axis of the
material. Domains are not in contact with anti-parallel domains as much, lessening
the energy from the exchange interaction.
This state represents the lowest energy of the three states, not just because it
minimizes the external magnetic field, but also because it is an intermediate state,
balancing the anisotropy and exchange energies.

Fig. 2.15 Origin of domains

2. Exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy

The interacting energy which makes the adjacent dipoles to align themselves is
known exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy. The exchange energy has
established a single domain in a specimen of ferromagnet and it is shown in Fig.
2.16. It is the energy required in assembling the atomic magnets in a single domain
and this work done is stored as potential energy.
Exchange energy arises from interaction of electron spins and is highly dependent on
the interatomic distance.

Fig. 2.16 Exchange interaction

3. Anisotropy energy
In ferromagnetic crystals there are two direction of magnetization.
(i) Easy direction
(ii) Hard direction
In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard direction of
magnetization, strong field should be applied.

Fig. 2.17 Hard and easy directions of magnetization

For producing the same saturation magnetization along both hard and easy
direction, strong fields are required in the hard direction than the easy direction. For
example in iron easy direction is [100], medium direction is [110] and the hard
direction is [111] and it is shown in Fig. 2.17. From the fig, we can see that very
strong field is required to produce magnetic saturation in hard direction [111]
compared to the easy direction [100].

Therefore, the excess of energy required to magnetize the specimen along hard
direction over that required to magnetize the specimen along easy direction is called
crystalline anisotropy energy.

4. Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy

Domain wall is a transition layer which separates the adjacent domains, magnetized
in different directions. The energy of domain wall is due to both exchange energy
and anisotropy energy. Based on the spin alignment, two types of domain walls may
arise,

Namely, (i) Thick wall and (ii) Thin wall

(i) Thick wall: When the spin at the boundary are misaligned if the direction of
the spin changes gradually as shown in Fig. 2.18 (a), it leads to a thick domain
wall. Here the misalignments of spins are associated with exchange energy.

Fig. 2.18 (a) Thick wall

(ii) Thin wall: When the spin at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the
anisotropy energy becomes very less. Since the anisotropy energy is directly
proportional to the thickness if the wall, this leads to a thin Bloch wall as seen
in Fig. 2.18 (b).

Fig. 2.18 (b) Thin wall

5. Magetostrictive energy

When the domains are magnetized in different directions, they will either expand
(or) shrink. Therefore, there exists a deformations (i.e.) change in dimension of the
material, when it is magnetized. This phenomenon is known as magnetosriction and
the energy produced in this effect is known as magnetostriction energy. The
deformation is different along different crystal directions and the change dimension
depends upon the nature of the material.

2.12 M VERSUS H BEHAVIOUR

When a ferromagnetic material is made to undergo a cycle of magnetization, the
variation of magnetic induction (B) with respect to applied field (H) can be
represented by a closed hysteresis loop (or) curve. (i.e.) it refers to the lagging of
magnetization behind the magnetizing field. If magnetizing field (H) is applied to a
ferromagnetic material and if H is increases to H max the material acquires magnetism.
So, the magnetic induction also increases, represented by ‘oa’ in Fig. 2.19.

Now if the magnetic field is decreased from H max to zero, the magnetic induction will
not fall rapidly to zero, but falls to ‘b’ rather than removed, the material still acquire
some magnetic induction (ob), which is so called residual magnetism or retentivity.

Fig. 2.19 Hysteresis curve

Now, to remove the residual magnetism, the magnetic field strength is reversed and
increased to Hmax represented as ‘oc’ so called coercivity. If –H is reduced to zero,
the corresponding curve ‘de’ and curve ‘efa’ is obtained.

2.12.1 EXPLANATION OF HYSTERESIS BASED ON DOMAIN

THEORY

When the ferromagnetic material is subjected to an external field, there is an

increase in the value of the magnetic moment due to two processes.

(i) Movement of domain walls (ii) Rotation of domain walls

When small external field is applied, the domains walls displaced slightly in the easy
direction of magnetization. This gives rise to small magnetization corresponding to
the initial portion of the hysteresis curve (OA) as shown in Fig. 2.20.

Now if the field is removed, then the domains return to the original state, and is
known as reversible domains.

When the field is increased, large numbers of domains contribute to the

magnetization, and thus, the magnetization increases rapidly with H.

Now, even when the field is removed, because of the displacement of domain wall to
a very large distance, the domain boundaries do not come back to their original
position. This process is indicated as AB in figure and these domains are called
irreversible domains.

Fig. 2.20 Energy product

Now, when the field is further increased, the domains starts rotating along the
field direction and the anisotropic energy stored in the hard direction, represented as
BC in the fig.

Thus, the specimen is said to attain the maximum magnetization. At this position,
even when the field is removed the material possesses maximum magnetization,
called residual magnetism or retentivity, represented by OD in figure.

Actually, after the removal of external field, the specimen will try to attain the
original configuration by the moment of domain wall. But, this moment is stopped
due to presence of impurities, lattice imperfections etc. therefore, to overcome this,
a large amount of reverse magnetic field is applied to the specimen. The amount of
energy spend to reduce the magnetization to zero is called coercivity represented by
OE in the figure.

It is the loss of the energy in taking a ferromagnetic specimen through a complete

cycle of magnetization and the area enclosed is called hysteresis loop.

2.13 HARD AND SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS –

EXAMPLES AND USES

S.
SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS
No.

They can be easily magnetized and They cannot be easily magnetized

1
demagnetized and demagnetized

2 Hysteresis loop is very narrow. Hysteresis loop is very broad

Susceptibility and permeability are Susceptibility and permeability are

3
high low

Loop area is less, and hence, Loop area is large, and hence,
4
hysteresis loss is minimum hysteresis loss is maximum.

5 Retentivity and coercivity are small Retentivity and coercivity are large.
S.
SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS
No.

6 They have low eddy current loss. They have high eddy current loss.

Movement of domain wall is easy, Movement of domain wall is not

7 and hence, even for a small applied easy, and hence, large field is
field, large magnetization occurs. required for magnetization.

These materials are free from These materials have large amount
8
irregularities like strain or impurities. of irregularities strain or impurities.

Examples: Carbon steel, Tungsten

Examples: Iron, Ferrites, Silicon steel, Chromium steel, Cu-Ni-Fe
9
alloys, Garnets etc. (Cunife), Cu-Ni-Co (CuNiCo), Al-Ni-
Co (Alnico)

Used to make temporary magnets. Used to make permanent magnets

They are used in switching devices, and can be used in magnetic
10
electro-magnets, Matrix storage of detectors, micro phones and
computers. magnetic separators.

Fig. 2.21 (a) Soft and (b) Hard magnetic material

14. MAGNETIC PRINCIPLE IN COMPUTER
DATA
STORAGE
Recently large number of information stored and retrieved from the storage devices,
by using magnetic phenomena.

The main part of the magnetic storage devices is magnetic recording heads and they
function according to the principles of magnetic induction.

Generally, ferro or ferri magnetic materials are used in the storage devices, because
in this type of materials only the magnetic interaction between any two dipoles align
themselves parallel to each other due this alignment, even we apply a small amount
magnetic field, a large value of magnetization is produced. By using this property
information are stored in the storage devices.

In the storage devices, the recording of the digital data (0s and 1s) depends upon
the direction of the magnetization in the medium.

1. MAGNETIC PARAMETERS FOR RECORDING

When a current is passed through the coil the magnetic field is induced. This
principle called electromagnetic induction is used as a parameter in the storage
devices

1. The ease with which the material can be magnetized is another parameter. We
know the soft magnetic materials are the materials which can be easily magnetize
and de magnetized; hence, based on this parameter, a data can be stored and
erased easily. Such magnetic materials are used in temporary storage devices.

2. Similarly, we know hard magnetic materials cannot be easily magnetized and de

magnetized easily, so such magnetic materials are used in permanent storage
devices.

3. In soft magnetic material, the electrical resistance varies with respect to

magnetization and this effect is called Magneto resistance. This parameter is used
in specific thin film systems.
2.14.2 MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES

In general, memory units are the devices used to store the information (I/O) in the
forms of bits (8 bit = 1 byte).

The memory units are mainly classified into 2 categories 1) Main memory (Primary)
or (Internal memory) 2) Auxiliary memory (Secondary or external memory).

1. Main Memory

The memory unit of the central processing unit (CPU) is called as main memory –
examples RAM/ROM/EPROM etc.

2. Auxiliary Memory

Since the storage capacity of the prime memories are not sufficient secondary or
auxiliary memory units are developed to store the large volume of data separately,
and hence, called as extra or additional or external memory.

This type of memory is also referred to as – back up storage, because, it is used to

store large volume of data on a permanent basis.

The data in auxiliary memory can be transferred to primary memory – (i.e.) to

computer partially, when required for processing.

2.14.3 EXAMPLES

1) Magnetic tapes 2) Magnetic disc (Floppy and hard disc) 3) Magnetic hard disc
drive (HDD)

1. Magnetic tape

Magnetic tape is one of the most popular storage medium for data. The tape is a
plastic ribbon with metal oxide material quoted on one side which can be
magnetized. In this, information can be written and read by write/read heads.

Information recorded in the tape is in the form of tiny magnetized and non-
magnetized spots on the metal oxide coting. The magnetized spot represent ‘1’ and
un-magnetized spot represent ‘0’. The information can be accessed, processed,
erased and can be again stored in the same area.
Advantages

(i) It has a large storage capacity.

(ii) It is easy to handle and portable.

(iii) Cost is less than other storage devices.

(iv) It can be erased and re used many times.

2. Magnetic hard disc drive (HDD)

Magnetic hard disc is a direct access storage device and it is made up of hard
aluminium platters. The platter surface is carefully machined until it is flat or plane.
The platter surface is coated with magnetic material (Magnetic oxides) and built into
a box. The discs are mounted on vertical shaft, forming a disc pack and it is shown in
Fig. 2.22.

Fig. 2.22 Magnetic hard disc drive

This disc pack is place in a drive mechanism called hard disc drive. The drive
mechanism, drives the disc pack with a spindle, the data is written or read by the
R/W heads in the horizontal sensing arms by moving in and out between the
platters. With the precaution that the R/W head does not touches the surface
instead, it is fly over the disc by a fraction of a millimetre.

Giant magneto resistance (GMR) sensors are used nowadays as a sensing element in
hard disc drive.

Advantages

(i) It has a very large storage capacity, 1000 of files can be permanently stored.

(ii) Very high speed in reading and writing information.

(iii) This is prevented from dust particles since they are seated in special chamber.

Disadvantages

(iv) It is very costly.

(v) If the data is corrupted, there is a heavy loss of data.

2.15 MAGNETIC HARD DISC DRIVE (GMR SENSOR)

Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) is a quantum mechanical magnetoresistance effect
observed in multilayers composed of alternating ferromagnetic and non-magnetic
conductive layers. The effect is observed as a significant change in the electrical
resistance depending on whether the magnetization of adjacent ferromagnetic layers
is in a parallel or an antiparallel alignment. The overall resistance is relatively low for
parallel alignment and relatively high for antiparallel alignment. The magnetization
direction can be controlled, for example, by applying an external magnetic field. The
effect is based on the dependence of electron scattering on the spin orientation.

The main application of GMR sensor, which are used to read data in hard disk drives,
biosensors, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and other devices. GMR
multilayer structures are also used in magnetoresistive random-access memory
(MRAM) as cells that store one bit of information.
2.15.1 INTRODUCTION

HDD hard disc drives made up of magnetic garnet materials are called magnetic
hard disk drive.

It is a mass data storage device, recently used for storing data to a very high level in
terms of tera bytes.

Recently, GMR (Giant Magneto Resistance) sensors, which have very high magnetic
sensitivity, are used to read the data at greater speed.

2.15.2 PRINCIPLE

In hard disc drive, the binary data in terms of 0’s and 1’s are stored by inducing
magnetic moment in a thin magnetic layer and GMR effect is used as a principle to
read the data in HDD.

2.15.3 CONSTRUCTION

The HDD consist of recording medium made up of thin layer of magnetic garnets
grown over the substrate. GMR sensor, which is made up of ferrites and anti-ferro
magnetic material is used as a reading element. The writing element is made up of
inductive magnetic transducer.

The writing element and GMR sensor shall be made to slide over the recording
media in the longitudinal direction and it is shown in Fig. 2.23; hence, this method is
also called as longitudinal recording.

The flow of current through the GMR sensor and the writing element shall be
adjusted an in turn the magnetization is sensed or controlled in the recording media.

2.15.4 WORKING WRITING/STORING

(i) Initially, the current is passed through the writing element and magnetic field is
induced between the gap of the inductive magnetic transducer.

(ii) During writing the amplitude of the current is kept constant and the direction of
the current is reversed.
 Fig. 2.23 Data storage on hard disc drive

(iii) Due to reversal of current the magnetization orientation is reversed in the

recording medium i.e., from south to north as shown in F i g . 2 . 2 3 .

(iv) When the induced magnetic field is greater that the coercivity of the recording
media, then data is recorded in the form of 1.

(v) Thus, one (1’s) is stored as data in the recording medium as a magnetic
transition.

(vi) When there is no magnetic transition, then it is referred as (0’s).

(vii) In this way the 0’s and 1’s are stored in the recording medium.

2.15.5 READING/RETRIEVING

(viii)Giant magnetic resistive (GMR) effect is the principle used to read/retrieve data
from recording medium.

(ii) When the GMR sensor is made to move near the recording medium, then the
resistance of the GMR sensor varies, with respect to the orientation of the
magnetic moments as follows.

(iii) When the layers are magnetized in parallel manner, resistance in the GMR
sensor is minimum, and therefore, maximum current flows through the sensor,
which represents the data as 1 as shown in Fig. 2.24.
 Fig. 2.24 Data retrieval

(iv) When the layers are magnetized in anti-parallel manner, then the resistance in
the GMR sensor will be maximum, and therefore, minimum current or no
current will flow through the sensor, which represents the data as 0 as shown in
Fig. 2.24.

(v) Therefore, with the help of the reading current, the 0’s and 1’s can be retrieved
from the magnetic hard disc drive.

2.15.6 ADVANTAGES

(vi) HDD can store the data in terms of terabytes and in future it can store data in
terms of petabytes and exabytes.

(vii) It has a very large storage capacity.

(viii)It is compact in size and can be easily transferred from one place to another.

(ix) The size of the recording medium in HDD shall be reduced up to few Nano
meter using Nano technology.

(x) GMR sensors are non-diffusive and are very sensitive in reading.

2.15.7 DISADVANTAGES

(xi) HDD is slower than Solid State Derive.

(xii) They consume more power and will damage, when dropped even at a smaller
distance.

(xiii)Sometimes data in HDD may be corrupted due to thermal radiation.

(iv) HDD has bulkier form factor.

(v) The GMR noise ratio is high for the nano size recording media as it is
temperature dependent.

2.15.8 APPLICATIONS

(vi) HDDs are used as storage devices in cloud applications.

(vii) They are used in coding and signal processing units.

(viii)It is many engineering fields such as control systems, Nano electronics etc.

(ix) The GMR and spin valve sensors are used in modern HDD by IBM.

2.16 INTRODUCTION TO SPINTRONICS

Spintronics or spin electronics is a study of the role played by the intrinsic spin of an
electron in materials and other devices that exploit spin properties. This emerging
field of science differ from conventional electronics which relies mainly on the charge
of the electron and ignores complety the intrinsic spin of the electron.

2.16.1 PRINCIPLE

Spintronics is based on the spin of the electrons rather than its charge. Every
electron exists in one of the two spin quantum states – spin-up or spin-down
quantum states as shown in Fig. 2.25. These two possible spin quantum states
represent ‘0’ and ‘1’ in logical expressions and they are called ‘qubits’ – meaning,
quantum bits.

Fig. 2.25 Qubits

2.16.2 EXPLANATION

Spin is a characteristic that makes an electron a tiny magnet with north and south
poles. The orientation of north-south axis depends on the particle’s axis of spin.

In ordinary materials, the up magnetic moments cancel the down magnetic moment
so on surplus moment piles up. Ferromagnetic materials like iron, cobalt and nickel
are needed for designing of spin electronic devices.
In ordinary materials, the up magnetic moments cancel the down magnetic moment
so on surplus moment piles up. Ferromagnetic materials like iron, cobalt and nickel
are needed for designing of spin electronic devices.

These have tiny regions called domains in which an excess of electrons has spins
with axis pointing either p or down. The domains are randomly scattered and evenly
divided between majority-up and majority-down. But, an externally applied magnetic
field will line up the domains in the direction of the field. This results in a permanent
magnet.

When a pool of spin-polarized electrons is put in a magnetic field, precession occurs.

The frequency and direction of rotation depend on the strength of the magnetic field
and the characteristic of the material.

Fig. 2.26 Precession of Electrons

2.16.3 WORKING

All spintronics devices act according to the simple scheme:

1. The information is stored (written) into spins as a particular spin orientation (up
or down).

2. The spins, being attached to mobile electrons, carry information along a wire and
the information is read at a terminal.
3. Spin orientation of conduction electrons survives for a relatively long time
(nanoseconds, compared to tens of femtoseconds during which electron moment
decays) which makes the spintronic device useful for memory storage and magnetic
sensor applications

2.16.4 ADVANTAGES
Spintronics have some advantages over electronics like:
i. No need for electrical current to keep the spin, memory can be saved without
energy;
ii. To control spin is needed less energy than control current, therefore, the power
consumption is reduced;
iii. Great reduction on heat emission;
iv. Greater processing speed with magnetic reprogrammable processors;
v. Extension of Moore’s law with smaller components.

2.16.5 APPLICATIONS OF SPINTRONICS

The applications of spintronics are listed below
(i) Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) sensors
(ii) Spin valves
(iii) Spin transistors
(iv) Spin LED
 Key Points to Remember


Magnetic flux density B = Tesla


Magnetic susceptibility Χ = (no unit)


Magnetic Permeability µ = H/m


Bohr magneton- The orbital and spin magnetic moments can be expressed in

Bohr magneton

1 µB= = 9.27x Am2


Relative permeability =


Intensity of magnetization I= weber/m2


Hysteresis-Lagging behind(I and B lags behind H)


Retentivity – Residual magnetisation retained in the material


Coerscivity or Coercive force- Strength of reverse field required to demagnetise

the material


Hysteresis loss- Loss of energy in the form of heat


Ferrites- Compounds of iron oxides with oxides of other metal


Soft magnetic materials- Materials can be easily magnetised and demagnetised

and has high retentivity and coercivity


Hard magnetic materials- Materials are difficult to demagnetise and has high

retentivity and coercivity

 
 SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. A paramagnetic material has a magnetic field intensity of 10 4 A/m. If

the susceptibility of the material at room temperature is 3.7x10 -3,
calculate the magnetization and magnetic flux density in the material.

Solution:
Given data: Magnetic field intensity, = 104 A/m
Magnetic susceptibility, = 3.7x10-3

Magnetization can be calculated as follows

𝐼= 𝜒 𝐻
¿ 3.7 ×10− 3 × 104
¿ 3 7 A m−1
Magnetic flux density can be calculated as follows
𝐵= 𝜇0 ( 𝐻 + 𝐼 )
¿ 4 𝜋 × 10 −7 (10 ¿ ¿ 4+ 37)¿
≈ 4 𝜋 ×10 −7 (10 ¿ ¿ 4 )¿
¿ 4 𝜋 ×10 −3 Wb m −2
2. A magnetic field strength of 2 x 10 5 A/m is applied to a paramagnetic
material with a relative permeability of 1.01. Calculate the values of B and
I.

Solution:
Given data: Magnetic field strength, = 2 x 105 A/m
Relative permeability, = 1.01

Magnetic flux density can be calculated using the formula as shown below
𝐵= 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐻
¿ 4 𝜋 ×10 −7 ×1.01 ×2 ×105
¿ 0.254 Wb m −2
Magnetization can be calculated as follows
𝐼 = 𝐻 (𝜇 𝑟 − 1)
¿ 2 × 105 (1.01 − 1 )
¿ 2 ×103 A m −1
3. The saturation magnetic induction of nickel is 0.65 Wb/m 2. If the
density of nickel is 8906 kg/m3 and atomic weight is 58.7, calculate the
magnetic moment of the nickel atom in units of Bohr magneton.

Solution:
Given data: Saturation magnetic induction, = 0.65 Wb/m2
Density of nickel, = 8906 kg/m3
Atomic weight of nickel, = 58.7

Since the atomic weight of nickel is 58.7, then, 6.023 x 10 23 atoms of nickel will be
present in 58.7 g of nickel.

Then, in 8906 kg of nickel, the number of nickel atoms can be calculated as follows
6.023 × 1023 × 8906
𝑁= −3
58.7 × 10
¿ 9.138 ×10 2 8 atoms of nickel
We have found the number of atoms in 8906 kg of nickel, which is same as the
number of atoms in a volume of 1 m3 of nickel.

Now, we shall find the saturation magnetization as follows

𝐵𝑠 =𝜇 0 ( 𝐻 + 𝐼 𝑠 )
≈ 𝜇0 𝐼 𝑠
𝐵𝑠
⇒ 𝐼 𝑠 =
𝜇0
0 .65
¿ −7
=5.173 ×105 A m −1
4 𝜋 × 10
Having found the saturation magnetization, the magnetic dipole moment of a nickel
atom can be found as follows
𝐼 𝑠= 𝑁𝑀
where is the number of atomic magnetic dipole moments per unit volume and is
the magnetic dipole moment of an atom. On rearrangement, we get the formula for
the magnetic dipole moment of an atoms as shown below
𝐼 𝑠
𝑀 =
𝑁
5.173 ×10 5
¿ 28
=5.66 × 10− 24 A m 2
9.138 ×10
Now, the magnetic moment of a nickel atom can be found in units of Bohr magneton
by dividing the magnetic moment obtained in SI units by , the Bohr magneton, i.e.

. 5.66 × 10 − 24
𝑀= − 24
9.274 × 10
¿ 0 .61 𝜇 𝐵
 OTHER LEARNING MATERIALS

VIDEO LINKS
1. Classification of magnetic materials
2. Types of Magnetic Material
3. Ferromagnetic domain theory
4. Soft and hard magnetic materials
5. Magnetic storage devices
6. Ferromagnetism - Introduction
7. Magnetic Domains
8. Spintronics and its Applications

WEBSITE LINKS
9. Magnetic Properties of Solids
2. Ferromagnetism
3. Spintronics: Fundamentals and Applications
4.Spintronic Devices and Applications

e-Books
5. Introduction to Magnetic Materials
6. Magnetism and Magnetic Materials
7. Magnetic properties
 COMPREHENSIVE QUIZ

After completing the course, students are instructed to take the

following quiz to quantify their understanding of the concepts on the
magnetic properties of materials.

1. https://forms.gle/kfX1am2uCQLWRWju8
2. https://forms.gle/asEhCCTEoYnZiqzh9

RESULTS
Repeat your learning, if your score is less than 60%.
Congratulations, if your score is above 90%.
 ASSIGNMENT

1. The magnetic susceptibility of silicon is −0.4 × 10−5. Calculate the flux density and
magnetic moment per unit volume when magnetic field of intensity 5 × 105 A/m is
applied. (Ans. M =–2.0 A/m)

2. The magnetic field strength in silicon is 1000 A/m. If the magnetic susceptibility is
−0.25 × 10−5, calculate the magnetization and flux density in silicon.

(Ans. M = –0.25 × 10‒2 A/m)

3. The saturation value of magnetization of iron is 1.76 × 106 A m–1. Iron had body
centered cubic structure with an elementary edge of 2.86 Å. Calculate the average
number of Bohr magnetrons contributed to the magnetization per atom.

(Ans: 2.2 Bohr magnetron per atom)

4. A paramagnetic material has FCC structure with a cubic edge of 2.5 A°. If the
saturation value of magnetization is 1.8 × 106 A m–1, Calculate the magnetization
contributed per atom in Bohr magnetrons.

(Ans. M =1.517 Bohr Magneton)

5. In a magnetic material the field strength is found to be 106 A m–1. If the magnetic
susceptibility of the material is 0.5 × 10–5, calculate the intensity of magnetization
and flux density in the material. (Ans. M =5 A/m, B = 1.257 Wb / m2)

6. The rare earth element gadolinium is ferromagnetic below 16 °C with 7.1 Bohr
magneton per atom. Calculate the magnetic moment per gram. What is the value
of saturation magnetisation, given that the atomic weight of gadolinium is 157.26
and its density is 7.8 x 103 kg/m3.

(Magnetic moment per gram = 1966.81 A m2 and Saturation

magnetisation is 0.348 Wb/m2)

7. Draw and discuss on the regular spinel and inverse spinel ferrite structures.
 PART A – QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

1. What is a Magnetic field? (K1, CO2)

The space around the magnet (or) the current carrying conductor where the magnetic
effect is felt is called Magnetic field.

2. Define magnetic dipole moment (M). (K1, CO2)

A system having two opposite magnetic poles separated by a distance is called as a

magnetic dipole. If ‘m’ is magnetic pole strength and ‘l’ is the length of the magnet,
then its dipole moment is given by

M=ml

3. Define magnetic flux. (K1, CO2)

The total number of magnetic lines of forces passing through the surface is called
magnetic flux. It is represented by Φ. Its unit is Weber.

4. Define magnetic flux density (or) Magnetic Induction (B). (K1, CO2)

It is defined as the magnetic flux (Φ) passing normally through unit area of cross
section (A).

It is denoted by ‘B’.

The unit of magnetic flux density or magnetic induction is weber / m 2.

5. What is Magnetization (or) Intensity of Magnetization (I)? (K1, CO2)

It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.

The unit of magnetization or intensity of magnetization is A/m.

6. What is magnetic field intensity? (K1, CO2)

Magnetic field intensity at any point, in a magnetic field is the force experienced by a
unit north pole placed at that point. Its unit is N / Wb (or) ampere turns per metre.
7. What is meant by magnetic permeability? (K1, CO2)

Absolute permeability is defined as the product of the permeability of a free space and
the relative permeability of the medium.

It can also be defined as the ratio between the magnetic flux density (B) and the
magnetic field intensity (H). μ = μ0μr = B / H.

8. What is meant by relative permeability? (K1, CO2)

It is defined as the ratio between the absolute permeability of a medium to the

permeability of the free space i.e. μr = μ / μ0.

9. Define magnetic susceptibility. (K1, CO2)

The magnetic susceptibility () of a material is the ratio of the intensity of

magnetization produced in the sample (I) to the magnetic field intensity (H). i.e. 
=I/H. It has no units.

10. What is Bohr Magneton? (Nov 2014/May 2015) (K1, CO2)

The magnetic moment contributed by an electron with angular momentum quantum

number n = 1 is known as Bohr Magneton. μ B = eh / 4m (9.274 x 10-24 A-m2)

11. What are diamagnetic materials? (K1, CO2)

If the atoms do not possess permanent magnetic dipoles, then such type of materials is
called diamagnetic materials. Ex.: Au, Si, Ge.

12. What is meant by anti-ferromagnetic materials? (K2, CO2)

If the permanent dipoles line up in anti-parallel direction and their magnitudes are
equal, such type of materials is called anti-ferromagnetic and the magnetization
vanishes.

Ex.: MnO, Cr2O3

13. What is meant by ferrimagnetic materials? (K1, CO2)

If the magnitudes of permanent dipoles are aligned anti-parallel and their magnitudes
are not equal, such type of materials exhibiting magnetization are called ferrimagnetic
materials. Ex.: ferrites.
14. Compare paramagnetic materials and ferromagnetic materials.
(Dec 2016) (K2, CO2)

Paramagnetic materials Ferromagnetic materials

If the atoms carry permanent magnetic

If the interaction among the permanent
dipoles and those dipoles do not
dipoles is strong such that all the
interact among themselves, such type
dipoles line up in parallel, such type of
of materials is called paramagnetic
materials is called ferromagnetic
materials.
magnetic materials.
Ex.: Platinum, copper sulphate,
Ex.: Fe, Ni, Co.
manganese sulphate.

15. What are the energies involved in the growth of magnetic domains?
(Jun/Jul 2009) (K1, CO2)

(i) Exchange energy

(ii) Magnetostatic energy

(iii) Anisotropy energy

(iv) Domain wall energy

(v) Magnetostrictive energy

16. What is meant by magnetic hysteresis?

(Nov/Dec 2009)(Jun2014) (K1, CO2)

The lagging of magnetic induction behind the applied field strength is called
magnetic hysteresis.

17. What is meant by retentivity or residual magnetism?

(Nov/Dec 2010) (K1, CO2)

It is defined as the amount of magnetic induction retained in the material even after
removing the magnetizing field.
18. What is coercivity? (Nov/Dec 2010) (K1, CO2)

It is defined as the amount of magnetizing field applied in the reverse direction to

remove the residual magnetism completely from the specimen.

19. What is energy product? (Nov/Dec 2009) (K1, CO2)

The product of retentivity and coercivity is known as energy product. It represents

the maximum amount of energy stored in the specimen.

20. What are soft and hard magnetic materials? (K1, CO2)

Soft: They can be easily magnetized and demagnetized. In this type of materials,
movement of domain wall occurs very easily, and hence, even for a small applied
field, large magnetization occurs.

Hard: They cannot be easily magnetised (or) demagnetised. In this type of

materials, movement of domain wall does not occur easily due to the presence of
impurities, and hence, large field is required for magnetisation.

21. What is Curie temperature? (K1, CO2)

Curie temperature is the critical temperature below which a material can behave as
ferromagnetic material and above which it can behave as paramagnetic material.

22. What is domain theory of ferromagnetism? (K1, CO2)

A ferromagnetic material is divided into a large number of small regions called

domains. Each domain is spontaneously magnetized. The net magnetic moment
produced in one domain will be cancelled by the other. As a result the total net
magnetic moment in the absence of the field is zero. When the external magnetic
field is applied, the magnetization is produced by two ways,

1. By the motion of domain walls

2. By the rotation of domains.

23. What are the applications of ferrites? (May2015) (K2, CO2)

(i) They are used to produce ultrasonic waves.

(ii) Used in audio and video transformers.

(iii) Ferrites rods are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity.

24. What is GMR sensor? (K1, CO2)

Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) is a quantum mechanical magnetoresistance effect

observed in multilayers composed of alternating ferromagnetic and non-magnetic
conductive layers.

The effect is observed as a significant change in the electrical resistance depending

on whether the magnetizations of adjacent ferromagnetic layers are in a parallel or
an antiparallel alignment.

25. What is the application of GMR sensor? (K2, CO2)

The main application of GMR is magnetic field sensors, which are used to read data
in hard disk drives, biosensors, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and other
devices. GMR multilayer structures are also used in magnetoresistive random-access
memory (MRAM) as cells that store one bit of information.
 PART B – QUESTIONS

1. (i) What is ferromagnetism? (K1, CO2)

(ii) Explain the reason for the formation of domain structure in a ferromagnetic
material and how the hysteresis curve is explained on the basis of the domain
theory?

2. (i) Classify the material on the basis of their spin? (K1, CO2)

(ii) What are ferromagnetic domains?

(iii) Discuss Weiss theory of ferromagnetism.

(iv) What are its merits and demerits?

3. (i) What are ferromagnetic domains? (K1, CO2)

(ii) Draw a M-H curve for a ferromagnetic material and identify retentivity and
coercive fields on the curve.

(iii) What is the energy low/per cycle?

(iv) What are ferrites?

4. (i) Discuss the domain structure in ferromagnetic materials. (K3, CO2)

(ii) Show how the Hysteresis curve is explained on the basis of domain theory.

5. Distinguish between Ferro, anti-ferro and ferri magnetic materials. (K3, CO2)

6. (i) Explain the origin of ferromagnetism. (K1, CO2)

(ii) Discuss the domain theory of ferromagnetism.

7. (i) Distinguish between soft and hard magnetic materials. (K3, CO2)

(ii) Give properties and applications of ferrites.

8. Write short notes on dia-, para-, and ferro-magnetic materials. (K1, CO2)

9. Explain domain theory of ferromagnetism and the types of energy involved in the
process of domain growth in detail (K1, CO2)
10. (i) Explain the dia-, para- and ferro-magnetic materials on the basis of spin.
(K1, CO2)

(ii) Discuss the properties and effect of external field on the para- and ferro-
magnetic materials. (K3, CO2)

11. (i) Write short notes on Ferromagnetic domains. (K1, CO2)

(ii) What are applications of ferrites?

12. (i) What is meant by ferromagnetism? (K1, CO2)

(ii) Explain the reason for the formation of domain structure in ferromagnetic
material.

(iii) Explain the hysteresis curve on the basis of domain theory.

13. (i) Describe the origin of domains in a ferromagnetic material. (K1, CO2)

(ii) Give the experimental evidence of domain structure.

14. (i) What is meant by hysteresis loss? (K1, CO2)

(ii) Describe the formation of hysteresis loop using domain wall movement.

(iii) Classify the magnetic materials as hard and soft on the basis of hysteresis
loop.

15. (i) What is meant by ferromagnetism? (K1, CO2)

(ii) Write down the applications of ferrites.

16. (i) What is meant by magnetic material? (K1, CO2)

(ii) What are the parameters used for the application of magnetic materials.

(iii) Write short notes on magnetic recording materials and discuss any one in
detail.

17. Describe the writing and reading of data in magnetic hard disk using GMR
sensors. (K1, CO2)

18. Explain Magnetic Hard Disk Drive with neat diagram. (K1, CO2)
ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES

NPTEL
1. Introduction to Solid State Physics
2. Physics of Materials

Coursera
3.Magnetic Materials
4.Magnetics for Power Electronic Converters
5.Magnetic Fields and Faraday's Law

EdX
6.Magnetic Materials and Devices
7.Introduction to the Theory of Ferromagnetism
8.Electricity & Magnetism
REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS IN DAY TO DAY
LIFE AND INDUSTRY
1. Ferromagnetic materials
are used in computer hard
disk drives to store
information and can be
read later by the computer
to extract information.

2. Permanent magnets are

present in all the sound
systems from headphones
to TV and mobile phones
speakers and home
theatre. A small coil of wire
and a magnet present in
side the speakers convert
the electrical signals to
sound vibrations.

3. The dark stripe at the back

of debit and credit cards is
a thin magnetic layer. The
information like the bank
details of the holder and
the date of expiry of the
card are stored on that
dark magnetic stripe layer.
When the card is passed
through a reading machine,
the pattern of the
magnetization is detected
and the data is read by the
machine.
4. In mining industries, magnets are used to separate magnetic and
non-magnetic particles from the ore.

5.Magnetic Resonance Imaging

6.Mass spectrometer
7.ABS Braking System
8.Bending and focusing magnets in particle accelerators
9. Magnets In Daily Life
10. 12 Awesome Uses Of Magnets In Our Daily Life
12. Applications For Permanent Magnets
 CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

1. Dilute magnetic semiconductors

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_semiconductor
2. Giant magnetoresistance and spin valve
3. Hall Effect Sensor
4. Magnetometer
5. MAGNAMED - Novel magnetic nanostructures for medical applicatio
ns
6. Magnetic Bubble Memory Fundamentals
 PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOKS AND
REFERENCE BOOKS

TEXTBOOKS
1. M.N. Avadhanulu and P.G. Kshirsagar, “A text book of Engineering Physics”, S.
Chand and Company, New Delhi, 2014.
2. R.K. Gaur and S.L. Gupta, “Engineering Physics”, Dhanpat Rai Publications (P)
Ltd., Eighth Ed., New Delhi, 2001.
3. V. Rajendran, “Materials Science”, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2011.
4. R.A. Serway and J.W. Jewett, “Physics for Scientists and Engineers”, Ninth Ed.,
Cengage Learning, 2014.
5. C. Kittel, “Introduction to Solid State Physics”, 8 th Ed., John Wiley & Sons, NJ,
USA, 2005.

REFERENCE BOOKS
6. D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, “Fundamentals of Physics”, 9 th Ed., John
Wiley & sons, 2011.
7. R.P. Feynman, “The Feynman Lectures on Physics - Vol. I, II and III”, The New
Millennium Edition, 2012.
8. N.W. Aschroft and N.D. Mermin, “Solid State Physics”, Harcourt College
Publishers, 1976.
9. S.O. Pillai, “Solid state physics”, New Age International, 2015.
10. M.A. Wahab, “Solid State Physics”, 3 rd Edition, Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,
2015
11. N. Garcia and A. Damask, “Physics for Computer Science Students”, Springer-
Verlag, 2012.
 MINIPROJECT SUGGESTIONS

1. Magnetic levitation
2. Free energy device with magnet
3. Wireless Power Transmission
4. Zero Friction Electromagnetic Braking System
5. Build a Magnetometer
6. Free Energy Mobile Phone Charger With Magnets
7. LEVITRON Levitating Spinning Top
 Thank you

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