Vitamins and Minerals: Micronutrients
Vitamins and Minerals: Micronutrients
Micronutrients
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Vitamins
• Organic compounds needed in small quantities for normal
function, growth and maintenance of human body.
Specialized function
• vitamin A (vision), vitamin K (blood clotting), vitamin D (bone)
Antioxidant activity
• vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E
• Influence the chemical nature of foods
• As reducing agents, radical scavengers, reactants in
browning reactions and flavour precursors.
• Foods
– Only animal products
• Liver
• Eggs
• Milk, butter and cheese
• Carotenoids
– Orange/Yellow fruits and vegetables
• Carrots, sweet potatoes, winter squash
– Leafy green vegetables
• Spinach, broccoli
Excess Vitamin A intake
•May turn your skin orange
•May cause fatigue, weakness, severe headache,
blurred vision, hair loss and joint pain.
•Toxicity:
– May cause severe liver or brain damage
– Birth defects
Deficiency in Vitamin A
•May cause night blindness
•Lowered immune system
Degradation & loss of vitamin A activity
Oxidation
– A major route of degradation
– unsaturated side chains are highly susceptible to
oxidation.
• Isomerisation
– Conversion of trans to cis form
– Cis forms have no or very limited vitamin activity.
– Caused by light, acid & thermal processing.
• Canning – high temperature and heat
• Opaque milk packaging
• Fragmentation
– Heating fragments it to lower MWt molecules.
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Vitamin D (calciferol)
• The only fat soluble vitamin that we can make from the
sunlight
• Can be stored in fat tissues
• Can be synthetically made from cholesterol
• RDA: 5 µg until age 50 (10 µg/day until 70; 15µg for 70+)
Roles of Vitamin D
• Essential for building and maintaining
bones and teeth
• Promotes the absorption and transport of
dietary calcium and phosphorous from the
intestine to the bloodstream
• Other health benefits:
– May boost immune system
– May also help decrease certain cancers
Sources of Vitamin D
• Sun exposure for 10 minutes a day
• Foods:
– Fortified milk
– Cheese
– Tuna
– Salmon
– Cereals
Excess intake of Vitamin D
Tocopherols
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Vitamin E Function
Function
An important co-factor required for maintenance of
normal blood coagulation
Works as a cofactor for an enzyme that makes two bone
proteins
• RDA of 70 μg for males and 60 μg for females
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Sources:
Plants: vitamin K1
Dark green & deep yellow vegetables (Turnip greens, broccoli,
cauliflower, kale, cabbage, spinach)
Microbial synthesis (intestinal bacterial synthesis): vitamin K2
Synthetic form: vitamin K3
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Water-Soluble Vitamins
• Vitamins B complex and C
• 8 B vitamins:
– Thiamin (B-1)
– Riboflavin (B-2)
– Niacin (B-3)
– Pyridoxine (B-4)
– Cobalamin (B-12)
– Folic acid
– Pantothenic acid
– Biotin
A Group of 8 B-vitamins
Structure
• Contains an amino group
and sulphur.
Function
• As a coenzyme , involved in
CHO metabolisum
• Helps body metabolize
glucose to supply energy.
Sources
• Whole cereals containing bran and germ, peas and beans
• Meats (pork, beef, and liver), egg yolk
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Deficiency of Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
• Causes the disease “Beriberi”
• Symptoms: loss of appetite, muscle weakness, fatigue, mental
confusion, depression
Stability of Thiamine
• Relatively stable to oxidation and light but sensitive to heat.
• Stable at acidic pH
• The least stable vitamin in solution at alkaline pH
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Riboflavin (vitamin B2)
Structure
• Water-soluble flavin compound with ribose side chain
Function
• Precursor – coenzymes FAD & FMN
• Energy metabolism: help metabolic production of energy
from foods
• Support healthy skin, hair, nails and eye tissue
• Approved colour additive: yellow greenish in colour.
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Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
Sources
• Mainly in milk, egg, meats
• Green leafy vegetables and grains
• But not in fruits
Deficiency
• Dermatitis: skin lesion and inflammation
• Sourness of mouth and tongue, burning and itching of eyes
Stability
• Unstable in alkaline pH
• Very sensitive to light
• Stable in acidic pH
• Heat stable
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Niacin – Vitamin B3
Structure
• 2 forms of vitamin B3
• Nicotinic acid found in plants
• Nicotinamide found in animals
Function
• Necessary for the synthesis of the coenzymes
• NAD: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
• NADP: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
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Niacin – Vitamin B3
Sources
• Widely found in animal and plant-based foods
• Also found in tea and coffee
Deficiency
• Disease – pellagra – The Four D’s
• Diarrhea
• Dermatitis
• Dementia
• Nerve Dysfunction
Stability
• Very stable to heat over a wide pH range and light
• The most stable vitamin amongst all vitamins
• Loss from leaching during washing and blanching 34
Pantothenic Acid (vitamin B5)
Structure
• Derivative of amino acid β-alanine
Function
• A component of coenzyme A involved in reactions of fatty
acid and cholesterol synthesis.
• Essential to metabolism of CHO, fats and proteins 35
Panthothenic Acid (vitamin B5)
Sources
• Rich in egg yolk, meat
• Moderate sources: nuts, whole grain cereals, legumes
Deficiency
• Deficiency is rare.
• Described as "burning-feet syndrome“
• Symptoms - numbing, tingling of hands and feet, fatigue
Structure:
3 different forms – pyridine derivatives
• Pyridoxal & pyridoxamine: most common in
animal products
• Pyridoxine: more in plants
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Pyridoxine / Pyridoxal (Vitamin B6)
Function
• Coenzyme necessary for protein synthesis and red blood
cell production
• Maintaining healthy nervous system
• Neurotransmitter
Sources
• Protein rich foods – meat, fish, cereal grains, nuts
• Largest storage in muscle glycogen
• Vit B6 is phosphorylated and bound to protein in most
tissues.
• Deficiency is rare
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Biotin (Vitamin H or Vit B7)
Structure
• Occurs in two forms: biotin and biocytin
Function
• Important for cell growth and synthesis of fatty acids
lysine
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Biotin (Vitamin B7)
Sources
• Yeast, liver, organ meats, soybean, rice bran, egg yolk, cauliflower
• Synthesized by microorganisms in the intestine
Stability
• Very stable to heat, light and oxygen
• Extreme high or low pH cause degradation
– Hydrolysis of amide linkage
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Folate (Vitamin B9)
Folic acid is the most stable, common pharmaceutical form.
Function
• Form red blood cells
• Metabolism and utilization of proteins and amino acids
• Aids in the synthesis of DNA and RNA
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Folate (Vitamin B9)
Sources
• Foliage of green plants & vegetables: asparagus, broccoli,
spinach, brussel sprouts, mushrooms
• Fortified Foods: flour
Deficiency
• Megaloblastic anemia: disease of abnormal large red blood cells
• Symptoms: depression, dementia
• Deficiency may lead to birth defects (neural tube defects)
• Necessary for an increased intake during pregnancy
• Folic acid - standard additive in cereal grains
Stability
• Sensitive to oxidation by oxygen, free radical and light
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Cobalamin (Vit B12)
Function
• Similar to folic acid
• Needed for production of nerve tissue and red blood cells
• Needed for DNA and RNA synthesis
Sources
• Only animal foods: meat, fish (shell fish: clams, oysters), eggs,
milk
Deficiency
• Pernicious anemia, neurological disorders
• Can occur in vegetarians
Stability and Degradation
• Degraded if heated at high temp for long times, e.g. canning etc.
temps > 100oC.
• Most stable at pHs between 4 – 7. 43
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
• Highly polar molecule water soluble
• Inexpensive to add to food
• Absorbed readily but not stored & must be
replenished daily.
Sources
Fresh fruits
oranges, grapefruits, tangerines, lemons, limes, papaya,
strawberries, cantaloupe
Most vegetables
tomatoes, broccoli, green and red bell peppers, raw lettuce
and other leafy greens
Functions of Vitamin C
Antioxidant
Reducing agent in a number of different reactions
Free radical scavenger
Symptom of deficiency
Scurvy – bleeding of gums, soft swollen bruised skin
Use of ascorbic acid in foods
Synthetic ascorbyl palmitate is often used.
By reducing polarity and increasing its fat solubility, thus
allowing its use in vegetable oils as an antioxidant.
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Antioxidant activity of ascorbic acid
Acts as an inhibitor of polyphenol oxidase
Donate H to phenolics thus, reducing the formation of quinones
Prevent enzymatic browning reaction
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Minerals
Minerals
• 22 minerals are needed by the body
Major minerals
•Present in large quantities in the body (larger than 5 g).
•Usually measured as mg
•Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Cl
•Macrominerals: Required more than 100 mg
Trace minerals
•Found in small quantities in the body
•Usually measured as μg
•Fe, Zn, Cu, Cr, Se, F, I, Mn, Mo
•Microminerals: Daily need is less than 100 µg
Properties of Minerals
Some exist as free ions in aqueous solution
Highly water soluble (Na+, K+, Cl- and F-)
Deficiency
Anemia: weakness, fatigue, headaches
Impaired immunity
Impaired work performance and cognitive function
Delay normal infant motor function
Increase risk for small or early (preterm) babies if deficient
during pregnancy
Causes of deficiency
Low intake, loss of blood, Poor absorption
Iron – a factor affecting lipid oxidation
Function
an integral component of thyroid hormone (thyroxine,T4), required
for normal growth and metabolism
– Thyroid hormones are required for normal growth and
development of tissues such as the central nervous system
– Important for energy production and oxygen consumption in cells
thereby helping to maintain the body’s metabolic rate.
Deficiency
Goiter - enlargement of thyroid gland
Sources of Iodine
Iodised salt
In the forms of NaI, KI or KIO
Many food manufacturers (meat, diary, bakery) do
not use iodinated salt.
Fast food and convenience products manufacturers
use idoinated salt irregularly.
Calcium (Ca)
Nutritional roles
The most abundant mineral in the human body
Most present in bones and teeth
Vitamin D increases calcium absorption
Smoking and too much caffeine, salt and protein can cause calcium
to be lost from the body
Function in foods
• Exists in many different phosphate forms
• Used as an acidulant in soft drinks (phosphoric acid, H3PO4)
• Leavening agent
• dicalcium phosphate, monosodium phosphate monohydrate,
sodium aluminum phosphate
• Emulsifying agent - tetrasodium pyrophosphate
• Buffering agent in carbonated drinks
Sources of Phosphorous
• Meat, Fish, Poultry, Milk, Eggs
• Whole grain cereals & legumes
Deficiency - rare
• Muscle weakness
• Bone weakness and pain
Excess of phosphorus
• Toxic
• Calcification of non-skeletal tissues,
– kidney
Fluorine (F)
Functions
• Involved in the formation of tooth structure that resists
acids
• Prevent tooth decay - dental caries (cavities)
– Promotes remineralization of early lesions in the
enamel
– Suppresses bacterial metabolism and reduces the
amount of acid they produce
Sources of Fluoride
•Dental Products
•Processed Beverages & Foods
• Water supply, drinking water, soft drinks, juices, sports drinks, beers, and
many other processed foods, including infant foods
•Pesticides
• Dried fruit, dried beans, cocoa powder, and walnuts
•Tea
• Brewed black tea has 3-4 ppm, commercial iced tea drinks contain 1-4 ppm
•Fluorinated Pharmaceuticals
•Mechanically Deboned Meat
• Chicken fingers and nuggets - contamination from bone particles that occurs
during the mechanical deboning process
• chicken sticks contain an average of 3.6 ppm
•Teflon Pans
• Boiling water in a teflon pan for 15mins adds an additional 2 ppm
http://www.fluoridealert.org/issues/sources/
Copper (Cu)
Functions
Used in breathing, energy release production of red
blood cells
Sources
• Seafood, shellfish, eggs, meat
• Nuts, whole grains, seeds, legumes
Selenium (Se)
Function
• Protection of cell from free radicals and hydrogen peroxide
• helps to regulate blood pressure and keep our immune system
healthy
• incorporated into proteins to make selenoproteins, which are
important antioxidant enzymes
Deficiency
• Low intake – increased risk for cancer and heart disease
RDA 60-70 µg
Sodium (Na+)
Function
• Main electrolytes of extracellular fluid (blood)
• Regulation of osmotic pressure (fluid balance) and pH
• Helps transmit nerve impulses
• Influences contraction and relaxation of muscles
• Excessive:
• Hypertension (high blood pressure)
• Stroke
• Heart failure
• Stomach cancer
• Kidney diseases & stones
Potassium (K+)
Function:
Main electrolyte of intracellular fluid
Controls muscle contractions (heart beat)
Associated with lower blood pressure
Source:
White beans, dark leafy vegetables, baked potatoes with
skin, dried apricots, yoghurt, fish, avocados, mushrooms
and bananas
Enrichment & Fortification