Vitamins and Minerals

Micronutrients

A/Prof. Michelle Yoo

 Learning outcomes

• Define vitamins and minerals

• Identify the sources of the different vitamins and
minerals
• Describe the important functions of vitamins and
minerals in foods and nutrition
• Understand the consequences of excessive
intake and deficiency in vitamins and minerals

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 Vitamins
• Organic compounds needed in small quantities for normal
function, growth and maintenance of human body.

• Essential micronutrients - cannot be synthesized in the

body, thus must be supplied in the diet.

• Vitamins are cofactors; they don’t do anything by

themselves.

• Do not contribute to calories.

• First vitamin discovered was thiamine (B1).
• Vitamin is derived from the fact that the substances are
needed for life (vita).

Vita = life & amine = containing nitrogen

• Not all vitamins are amines or nitrogen containing

compounds.
• Vitamin requirements are usually expressed as RDA
(recommended dietary allowances).
• Vitamin deficiency causes serious diseases but excessive
intake can be toxic.
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 Why do we need vitamins?
Cofactors for enzymatic reactions
• Not all vitamins serve as coenzymes
• Mainly the water soluble vitamins

Specialized function
• vitamin A (vision), vitamin K (blood clotting), vitamin D (bone)

Antioxidant activity
• vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E
• Influence the chemical nature of foods
• As reducing agents, radical scavengers, reactants in
browning reactions and flavour precursors.

• Prevents disease or have general metabolic effect

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 Classification of Vitamins
Lipid soluble Water soluble
A Retinol B1 Thiamine
D2 Ergocalciferol B2 Riboflavin
D3 Cholecalciferol B3 Niacin, nicotinic acid
Tocopherol nicotinamide
E
Phylloquinone Pantothenic acid
K B5
Pyridoxine, pyridoxal,
Lipid soluble vitamins B6
pyridoxalamine
 Stored in body’s fatty tissues
 May be toxic in excess Biotin (vitamin H)
B7 Folate (folic acid)
B9 Cobalamin
B12 Ascorbic acid
C be easily absorbed and excreted
 Water soluble vitamins can
 Not stored extensively in tissues. Seldom reach toxic levels
Nutritional Value of Vitamins is lost by:
 Vitamins are susceptible to

• Vitamin A: sensitive to oxygen and light

• Vitamin D: usually little loss
• Vitamin E: sensitive to oxidation especially when heated or
with alkali
• Vitamin K: sensitive to acids, alkali, light and oxidizing
agents

• Vitamin C: very sensitive oxidation, especially when heated

in contact with metals
• Vitamin B complex: water solubility results in loss in
cooking water
• Riboflavin is sensitive to light
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 Fat Soluble Vitamins
• A – orange, carotenoids, vision, antioxidant-
used as color and antioxidant

• D – we make it with sunlight, deficiency causes

rickets, in milk, regulates Ca:P ratios

• E – tocopherols, antioxidants, role in preventing

stroke, cancer, heart disease- used as
antioxidant

• K – contributes to blood clotting factor

 Vitamin A (Retinol)
• A group of vitamin A is called “retinoids”
• Retinol, retinal, retinoic acid or retinyl ester
• Beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A
• RDA: 900 µg for males; 700 µg for females
 Functions of Vitamin A
– Promotes good vision
– Helps with growth and maintenance of bones,
teeth, and cell structure
– Helps maintain normal reproduction
– Enhance immune system
– Antioxidant – help protection from certain
cancers (skin, lung cancer)
– Carotinoids are used in food industry as a
colorant (orange)
 Dietary sources of vitamin A

• Foods
– Only animal products
• Liver
• Eggs
• Milk, butter and cheese

• Carotenoids
– Orange/Yellow fruits and vegetables
• Carrots, sweet potatoes, winter squash
– Leafy green vegetables
• Spinach, broccoli
Excess Vitamin A intake
•May turn your skin orange
•May cause fatigue, weakness, severe headache,
blurred vision, hair loss and joint pain.
•Toxicity:
– May cause severe liver or brain damage
– Birth defects

Deficiency in Vitamin A
•May cause night blindness
•Lowered immune system
 Degradation & loss of vitamin A activity
 Oxidation
– A major route of degradation
– unsaturated side chains are highly susceptible to
oxidation.

• Isomerisation
– Conversion of trans to cis form
– Cis forms have no or very limited vitamin activity.
– Caused by light, acid & thermal processing.
• Canning – high temperature and heat
• Opaque milk packaging

• Fragmentation
– Heating fragments it to lower MWt molecules.
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 Vitamin D (calciferol)

• The only fat soluble vitamin that we can make from the
sunlight
• Can be stored in fat tissues
• Can be synthetically made from cholesterol
• RDA: 5 µg until age 50 (10 µg/day until 70; 15µg for 70+)
 Roles of Vitamin D
• Essential for building and maintaining
bones and teeth
• Promotes the absorption and transport of
dietary calcium and phosphorous from the
intestine to the bloodstream
• Other health benefits:
– May boost immune system
– May also help decrease certain cancers
 Sources of Vitamin D
• Sun exposure for 10 minutes a day
• Foods:
– Fortified milk
– Cheese
– Tuna
– Salmon
– Cereals
 Excess intake of Vitamin D

– Occurs only from excess supplementation

– Can lead to calcium deposits in soft tissues,
such as kidneys, heart, lungs and blood vessels
– causing hardening of tissues
– Anorexia: a loss of appetite
– Nausea: a feeling of sickness in stomach
(vomiting)
 Vitamin D deficiency
• Due to inadequate diet
– Vegetarianism, lactose intolerance, milk allergy
• Occur from limited exposure to sunlight
• Or body being unable to absorb needed vitamin D
• May lead to osteomalacia and/or osteoporosis
• May lead to rickets
 Vitamin E (Tocopherol)

• Water-insoluble, plant-derived substances

• 8 naturally-occurring isomers
• RDA of 10mg for males and 7mg for females
• Deficiencies are rare and not well understood
• major role is to protect polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA) from oxidation.
• It acts as an anti-oxidant in the lipid phase of cell
membranes
• Toxicity is rare
 Vitamin E
Two groups of compounds are found in plants

Tocopherols

• -tocopherol: the most widely found, the highest vitamin E

activity

Tocotrienols (Lower vitamin activity than tocopherols) 21

 Sources of Vitamin E

Plants: primary source

• Corn, wheat germ, nuts, seeds, olives
• Green leafy vegetables
• Vegetable oils (soybean, corn, cottonseed,
safflower, etc)
• Vitamin E content is proportional to the content of
PUFAs

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 Vitamin E Function

• A natural constituent of cellular membrane - maintain

its integrity and stability.
• Act as a strong antioxidant, thus preventing from
lipid oxidation by quenching free radicals.
• Reduce the risk of heart disease, stroke and cancer.
• Protect body tissues such as eyes, skin and liver
• Contribute to the stability of highly unsaturated
vegetable oils.
• Important for normal reproduction (traditionally called
a sex vitamin).
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 Vitamin K (Phytomenadione)

Function
 An important co-factor required for maintenance of
normal blood coagulation
 Works as a cofactor for an enzyme that makes two bone
proteins
• RDA of 70 μg for males and 60 μg for females

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Sources:
 Plants: vitamin K1
 Dark green & deep yellow vegetables (Turnip greens, broccoli,
cauliflower, kale, cabbage, spinach)
 Microbial synthesis (intestinal bacterial synthesis): vitamin K2
 Synthetic form: vitamin K3

Stability and Degradation of vitamin K

• Relatively stable to heat and O2
• Can be reduced to hydroquinones by reducing agents and the
vitamin activity is still retained. Vitamin K-hydroquinone has the
ability of scavenging the free radicals (i.e. antioxidant). 25
Deficiency of vitamin K
• Deficiency is rare in adults because of its synthesis by
intestinal bacteria and a widespread presence of
phylloquinones in diets.
• Hemorrhage (excess bleeding from blood vessels)
– In infants, it can be partly due to little synthesis.

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 Water-Soluble Vitamins
• Vitamins B complex and C
• 8 B vitamins:
– Thiamin (B-1)
– Riboflavin (B-2)
– Niacin (B-3)
– Pyridoxine (B-4)
– Cobalamin (B-12)
– Folic acid
– Pantothenic acid
– Biotin
 A Group of 8 B-vitamins

via leaching during B1 Thiamine

washing, blanching and Riboflavin
B2
processing, B-vitamins
B3 Niacin, nicotinamide,
are lost
nicotinic acid
Main functions B5 Pantothenic acid
In general, all B- Pyridoxine, pyridoxal,
B6
vitamins serve as pyridoxalamine
coenzymes in Biotin
metabolic chemical B7
Folate (folic acid)
reactions in the body. B9 Cobalamin
B12
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 Thiamine (Vitamin B1)

Structure
• Contains an amino group
and sulphur.

Function
• As a coenzyme , involved in
CHO metabolisum
• Helps body metabolize
glucose to supply energy.

Sources
• Whole cereals containing bran and germ, peas and beans
• Meats (pork, beef, and liver), egg yolk
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Deficiency of Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
• Causes the disease “Beriberi”
• Symptoms: loss of appetite, muscle weakness, fatigue, mental
confusion, depression

Stability of Thiamine
• Relatively stable to oxidation and light but sensitive to heat.
• Stable at acidic pH
• The least stable vitamin in solution at alkaline pH

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Riboflavin (vitamin B2)

Structure
• Water-soluble flavin compound with ribose side chain

Function
• Precursor – coenzymes FAD & FMN
• Energy metabolism: help metabolic production of energy
from foods
• Support healthy skin, hair, nails and eye tissue
• Approved colour additive: yellow greenish in colour.

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Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)

Sources
• Mainly in milk, egg, meats
• Green leafy vegetables and grains
• But not in fruits
Deficiency
• Dermatitis: skin lesion and inflammation
• Sourness of mouth and tongue, burning and itching of eyes
Stability
• Unstable in alkaline pH
• Very sensitive to light
• Stable in acidic pH
• Heat stable

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Niacin – Vitamin B3

Structure
• 2 forms of vitamin B3
• Nicotinic acid found in plants
• Nicotinamide found in animals

Function
• Necessary for the synthesis of the coenzymes
• NAD: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
• NADP: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

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 Niacin – Vitamin B3
Sources
• Widely found in animal and plant-based foods
• Also found in tea and coffee

Deficiency
• Disease – pellagra – The Four D’s
• Diarrhea
• Dermatitis
• Dementia
• Nerve Dysfunction

Stability
• Very stable to heat over a wide pH range and light
• The most stable vitamin amongst all vitamins
• Loss from leaching during washing and blanching 34
Pantothenic Acid (vitamin B5)
Structure
• Derivative of amino acid β-alanine

Function
• A component of coenzyme A involved in reactions of fatty
acid and cholesterol synthesis.
• Essential to metabolism of CHO, fats and proteins 35
Panthothenic Acid (vitamin B5)
Sources
• Rich in egg yolk, meat
• Moderate sources: nuts, whole grain cereals, legumes

Deficiency
• Deficiency is rare.
• Described as "burning-feet syndrome“
• Symptoms - numbing, tingling of hands and feet, fatigue

Stability and Degradation

• High temperatures can cause hydrolysis into β-alanine and
pantoic acid.
• Most stable at neutral pHs
• High leaching losses as water soluble
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Pyridoxine / Pyridoxal (Vitamin B6)

Structure:
3 different forms – pyridine derivatives
• Pyridoxal & pyridoxamine: most common in
animal products
• Pyridoxine: more in plants

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Pyridoxine / Pyridoxal (Vitamin B6)

Function
• Coenzyme necessary for protein synthesis and red blood
cell production
• Maintaining healthy nervous system
• Neurotransmitter

Sources
• Protein rich foods – meat, fish, cereal grains, nuts
• Largest storage in muscle glycogen
• Vit B6 is phosphorylated and bound to protein in most
tissues.

• Deficiency is rare
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Biotin (Vitamin H or Vit B7)

Structure
• Occurs in two forms: biotin and biocytin
Function
• Important for cell growth and synthesis of fatty acids

lysine

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Biotin (Vitamin B7)

Deficiency (very rare)

• causes skin disease and hair loss
• Deficiency occur after long antibiotic treatment or after excessive
consumption of raw eggs
• Binding of avidin (raw egg white protein) to biotin, preventing absorption

Sources
• Yeast, liver, organ meats, soybean, rice bran, egg yolk, cauliflower
• Synthesized by microorganisms in the intestine

Stability
• Very stable to heat, light and oxygen
• Extreme high or low pH cause degradation
– Hydrolysis of amide linkage
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Folate (Vitamin B9)
 Folic acid is the most stable, common pharmaceutical form.

Function
• Form red blood cells
• Metabolism and utilization of proteins and amino acids
• Aids in the synthesis of DNA and RNA

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Folate (Vitamin B9)
Sources
• Foliage of green plants & vegetables: asparagus, broccoli,
spinach, brussel sprouts, mushrooms
• Fortified Foods: flour

Deficiency
• Megaloblastic anemia: disease of abnormal large red blood cells
• Symptoms: depression, dementia
• Deficiency may lead to birth defects (neural tube defects)
• Necessary for an increased intake during pregnancy
• Folic acid - standard additive in cereal grains

Stability
• Sensitive to oxidation by oxygen, free radical and light

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Cobalamin (Vit B12)
Function
• Similar to folic acid
• Needed for production of nerve tissue and red blood cells
• Needed for DNA and RNA synthesis
Sources
• Only animal foods: meat, fish (shell fish: clams, oysters), eggs,
milk

Deficiency
• Pernicious anemia, neurological disorders
• Can occur in vegetarians
Stability and Degradation
• Degraded if heated at high temp for long times, e.g. canning etc.
temps > 100oC.
• Most stable at pHs between 4 – 7. 43
 Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
• Highly polar molecule  water soluble
• Inexpensive to add to food
• Absorbed readily but not stored & must be
replenished daily.

Sources
 Fresh fruits
 oranges, grapefruits, tangerines, lemons, limes, papaya,
strawberries, cantaloupe
 Most vegetables
 tomatoes, broccoli, green and red bell peppers, raw lettuce
and other leafy greens
Functions of Vitamin C

Antioxidant
 Reducing agent in a number of different reactions
 Free radical scavenger

Cofactor: biosynthetic & metabolic reactions

 For synthesis and maintenance of collagen
 Key immune function nutrient
 Promote the absorption of Fe

Symptom of deficiency
 Scurvy – bleeding of gums, soft swollen bruised skin
Use of ascorbic acid in foods
 Synthetic ascorbyl palmitate is often used.
 By reducing polarity and increasing its fat solubility, thus
allowing its use in vegetable oils as an antioxidant.

Oxidation & reduction of vitamin C

 Oxidized by oxygen to dehydroascorbic acid.
 Ascorbic acid is a reducing agent, thus used as antioxidant.
 Can be further hydrolyzed – opening the ring structure.

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 Antioxidant activity of ascorbic acid
 Acts as an inhibitor of polyphenol oxidase
 Donate H to phenolics  thus, reducing the formation of quinones
 Prevent enzymatic browning reaction

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Minerals
 Minerals
• 22 minerals are needed by the body

• Inorganic elements: stable and cannot be destroyed

by heat, light and oxygen
• Lost via leaching during processing

• Cannot be synthesized in the body

• Essential to our body - 4% of our body weight

• A total mineral content of food can be determined by

measuring the ash content (proximate analysis)
 Major and Trace Minerals

Major minerals
•Present in large quantities in the body (larger than 5 g).
•Usually measured as mg
•Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Cl
•Macrominerals: Required more than 100 mg

Trace minerals
•Found in small quantities in the body
•Usually measured as μg
•Fe, Zn, Cu, Cr, Se, F, I, Mn, Mo
•Microminerals: Daily need is less than 100 µg
 Properties of Minerals
 Some exist as free ions in aqueous solution
 Highly water soluble (Na+, K+, Cl- and F-)

 Many exist as chelates or oxygen containing

anions (SO4-2 and PO4-3)
 Structural components of bone and teeth
(Ca, P, Mg)

 Enzyme cofactors (Fe, Cu, Mg, Zn)

 Iron (Fe) - Necessary for energy metabolism
2 major chemical forms in foods:
Heme
 Present as chelates with proteins
 Able to complex with organic molecules with a coordination
number of 6.
 Hemoglobin and myoglobin in meat or blood-containing foods
 Hemoglobin: Carries O2 in the blood
 Myoglobin: Stores O2 and makes oxygen for muscle
contraction
Non-Heme
 Inorganic iron (Fe2+ or Fe3+)
 Plant foods and also some in meats
 Iron
Sources (8-18mg/day required)
Red meats, fish, poultry, shellfish, eggs
Legumes (beans)
Iron-fortified flour and cereals

Deficiency
Anemia: weakness, fatigue, headaches
Impaired immunity
Impaired work performance and cognitive function
Delay normal infant motor function
Increase risk for small or early (preterm) babies if deficient
during pregnancy

Causes of deficiency
Low intake, loss of blood, Poor absorption
 Iron – a factor affecting lipid oxidation

 Catalyses the rate of decomposition of lipid hydroperoxides

in foods, thus promotes the lipid oxidation.

 Note that ascorbic acid can also act as a prooxidant in the

presence of iron.

 When iron present, ascorbic acid accelerate the lipid

oxidation by reducing Fe+3 to Fe+2  if iron present,
generation of more radical.
 Iodine (I)
one of the 1st trace elements to be identified as essential
(RDA 100-150µg)

Function
an integral component of thyroid hormone (thyroxine,T4), required
for normal growth and metabolism
– Thyroid hormones are required for normal growth and
development of tissues such as the central nervous system
– Important for energy production and oxygen consumption in cells
thereby helping to maintain the body’s metabolic rate.

Deficiency
Goiter - enlargement of thyroid gland
 Sources of Iodine

 Seafood, salt-water fish

 Plants and animals grown on lands (in soils) containing
iodine
 New Zealand – soil low in iodine

 Iodised salt
 In the forms of NaI, KI or KIO
 Many food manufacturers (meat, diary, bakery) do
not use iodinated salt.
 Fast food and convenience products manufacturers
use idoinated salt irregularly.
 Calcium (Ca)
Nutritional roles
 The most abundant mineral in the human body
 Most present in bones and teeth
 Vitamin D increases calcium absorption

Smoking and too much caffeine, salt and protein can cause calcium
to be lost from the body

Functional Roles in Foods

• Used as a gelling agent (cross-linker) – pectin, alginate
• Cross-links casein submicelles in casein micelles as colloidal
calcium phosphate
 Calcium
Source (RDA 1000mg)
• Dairy products
• Vegetables (cauliflower, broccoli), legumes (beans)
• Ca fortified foods (breakfast cereals, some juices)
• Sardines
Deficiency
• Osteoporosis (weak bones)
• Rickets (bone deformation)
Excessive intake
• Calcium build-up in soft tissues (kidney stones)
• Can be toxic
 Phosphorous (P)
Nutritional Roles
• 2nd most abundant mineral in the body
• Component of bones and teeth
• Part of phospholipids, phosphoproteins, nucleic acid, ATP, ADP

Function in foods
• Exists in many different phosphate forms
• Used as an acidulant in soft drinks (phosphoric acid, H3PO4)
• Leavening agent
• dicalcium phosphate, monosodium phosphate monohydrate,
sodium aluminum phosphate
• Emulsifying agent - tetrasodium pyrophosphate
• Buffering agent in carbonated drinks
Sources of Phosphorous
• Meat, Fish, Poultry, Milk, Eggs
• Whole grain cereals & legumes

Deficiency - rare
• Muscle weakness
• Bone weakness and pain

Excess of phosphorus
• Toxic
• Calcification of non-skeletal tissues,
– kidney
 Fluorine (F)
Functions
• Involved in the formation of tooth structure that resists
acids
• Prevent tooth decay - dental caries (cavities)
– Promotes remineralization of early lesions in the
enamel
– Suppresses bacterial metabolism and reduces the
amount of acid they produce
 Sources of Fluoride

•Dental Products
•Processed Beverages & Foods 
• Water supply, drinking water, soft drinks, juices, sports drinks, beers, and
many other processed foods, including infant foods
•Pesticides
• Dried fruit, dried beans, cocoa powder, and walnuts
•Tea
• Brewed black tea has 3-4 ppm, commercial iced tea drinks contain 1-4 ppm

•Fluorinated Pharmaceuticals
•Mechanically Deboned Meat
• Chicken fingers and nuggets - contamination from bone particles that occurs
during the mechanical deboning process
• chicken sticks contain an average of 3.6 ppm
•Teflon Pans
• Boiling water in a teflon pan for 15mins adds an additional 2 ppm

http://www.fluoridealert.org/issues/sources/
 Copper (Cu)

 Exist in cuprous (Cu+) and cupric ions (Cu2+) forms

 Act as catalyst for lipid oxidation similar to iron.

Functions
 Used in breathing, energy release production of red
blood cells

Sources
• Seafood, shellfish, eggs, meat
• Nuts, whole grains, seeds, legumes
Selenium (Se)
Function
• Protection of cell from free radicals and hydrogen peroxide
• helps to regulate blood pressure and keep our immune system
healthy
• incorporated into proteins to make selenoproteins, which are
important antioxidant enzymes

Deficiency
• Low intake – increased risk for cancer and heart disease

RDA 60-70 µg
 Sodium (Na+)
Function
• Main electrolytes of extracellular fluid (blood)
• Regulation of osmotic pressure (fluid balance) and pH
• Helps transmit nerve impulses
• Influences contraction and relaxation of muscles

• Component of NaCl (table salt)

• Added during processing
• Enhances flavors
• Increases consumer acceptance
• Raises boiling point of liquids (pasta)
• Masks bitter tastes
• Food safety
• Water binding

• Salt sensitivity – genetics and race

 Sodium
• Deficiency:
– Hyponatremia

– Congestive heart/liver/kidney failure

• Excessive:
• Hypertension (high blood pressure)
• Stroke
• Heart failure
• Stomach cancer
• Kidney diseases & stones
 Potassium (K+)

Function:
 Main electrolyte of intracellular fluid
 Controls muscle contractions (heart beat)
 Associated with lower blood pressure

Source:
White beans, dark leafy vegetables, baked potatoes with
skin, dried apricots, yoghurt, fish, avocados, mushrooms
and bananas
 Enrichment & Fortification

 Enrichment – Adding nutrients lost during

production of food
 Fortification – Nutrient added that are not
originally present
 Because vitamins & minerals play important
role in body’s processes, most food now
enriched or fortified
 Antioxidants – A compound that inhibits
oxidation, which can cause deterioration and
rancidity
 Especially important antioxidants – Vitamins
A, C, and E and the mineral selenium
 Uses – Neutralize free radicals (an unstable
molecule that is extremely reactive and that
can damage cells)