1 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II

Chapter 5.
Unbound
Pavement
Materials
 UNBOUND PAVEMENT MATERIALS
2

 The choice of pavement material largely depends on the

type and cost of natural materials locally available.
 A thorough assessment of the local resources in road
making materials is essential to select the most economical
pavement.
 In selecting and using natural gravels, their inherent
variability must be taken into account which requires
reasonably comprehensive characterization testing to
determine representative properties.
 The use of locally available materials is encouraged,
particularly at low traffic volumes.
 Sources of Aggregate
3

 Hard rocks, sand and gravels are important sources of

aggregates.
 Pulverized concrete and asphalt pavements as well as
recycled and waste materials are other sources of aggregate.
 Bedrocks are classified into igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rock according to their mode of formation.
 Sand or gravel deposits might be composed of different
mineral particles such as limestone, sandstone, and granite
depending upon the original bedrock sources of particles.
 Sources of Aggregate
4

 The property of crushed aggregate produced in quarries

from bedrock depends on the type of bed rock.
 Igneous and metamorphic rocks are usually hard and
form excellent aggregates.
 Sedimentary rocks like limestone and dolomite (softer
than igneous rocks) are still used as an aggregate for
most purposes.
 Shale (Composed of clay grains) is very weak
(disintegrates easily when exposed to weather) and is a
poor aggregate material.
 Sources and Properties of Aggregate
5
 Properties of Aggregate
6

 Tests for Aggregate

(1) Determination of the particle size distribution
The particle size distribution shall be determined in accordance with:
AASHTO T 27 Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse
Aggregates
(2) Determination of the Flakiness Index
British Standard 812, Part 105
(3) Determination of the specific gravity and water absorption
AASHTO T 85 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse
Aggregate
AASHTO T 84 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate
(4) Determination of the moisture content
The moisture content in the laboratory shall be determined in
accordance with AASHTO T 255 Method for Total Moisture Content
of Aggregate by Drying.
 Properties of Aggregate
7

 Tests for Aggregate

(5) Determination of the Aggregate Crushing Value
British Standard 812, Part 110
(6) Resistance to abrasion of coarse aggregate by use of the Los
Angeles machine
AASHTO T 96
(7) Soundness of Aggregates
AASHTO T 104

Home Work:
(Brief Description of the above tests, their procedures
and typical range of values)
 Blending Aggregate
8

 Exercise during Tutorial !!!

 Unbound base and sub-base material
9

 This chapter gives guidance on the selection of unbound materials for use
as base course, sub-base, capping and selected subgrade layers. The main
categories with a brief summary of their characteristics are shown in Table
5-1.
 Table 5-1: Properties of Unbound Materials (ERA)

 Notes: These specifications may be modified according to site conditions, material type and principal
use. And where GB = Granular base course, GS = Granular sub-base, GC = Granular capping layer.
 Base Course Materials
10

 A wide range of materials can be used as unbound base course

including crushed quarried rock, crushed and screened,
mechanically stabilized, modified or naturally occurring
gravels.
 Their suitability for use depends primarily on the design traffic
level of the pavement and climate.
 However, all base course materials must have a particle size
distribution and particle shape which provide high mechanical
stability and should contain sufficient fines (amount of material
passing the 0.425 mm sieve) to produce a dense material when
compacted.
 Base Course Materials
11

 The final choice should take into account the expected

level of future maintenance and the total costs over
the expected life of the pavement.
 The use of locally available materials is encouraged,
particularly at low traffic volumes.
 Their use should be based on the results of
performance studies.
 Base Course Materials
12
CRUSHED STONE
Graded crushed stone (GB1)
 This material is produced by crushing fresh, quarried rock

(GB1) and a 'crusher-run', or alternatively the material may be

separated by screening and recombined to produce a desired
particle size distribution.
 After crushing, the material should be angular in shape with a

Flakiness Index of less than 35% (preferably less than 30%).

 If the amount of fine aggregate produced during the crushing

operation is insufficient, non-plastic angular sand may be used.

 In constructing a crushed stone base course, the aim should be to

achieve maximum impermeability compatible with good

compaction and high stability under traffic.
 Base Course Materials
13
CRUSHED STONE
 Table 5.2, Grading Limits for Graded Crushed Stone Base
Course Materials (GB1), depending on the local conditions for a
particular project
 Base Course Materials
14
CRUSHED STONE
 To ensure that the materials are sufficiently durable, they should
satisfy the criteria given in Table 5-3.
 Table 5-3: Mechanical Strength Requirements for the Aggregate
Fraction of Crushed Stone Base Course Materials (GB1) as Defined
by the Ten Per Cent Fines Test

 These are a minimum Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV) and limits on
the maximum loss in strength following a period of 24 hours of
soaking in water.
 Alternatively, requirements expressed in terms of the results of the
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) may be used: the ACV should
preferably be less than 25 and in any case less than 29.
 Base Course Materials
CRUSHED STONE
15

 The fine fraction of a GB1 material should be non-plastic.

 The material is usually kept wet during transport and
laying to reduce the likelihood of particle segregation.
 The in situ dry density of the placed material should be a
min. of 98% of the max. dry density obtained in the ASTM
Test D 1557.
 The compacted thickness of layers should not exceed 200
mm.
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULAR MATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

16

 Normal requirements for natural gravels and

weathered rocks (GB2, GB3).
 A wide range of materials including lateritic, calcareous and
quartzitic gravels, river gravels, boulders and other transported
gravels, or granular materials resulting from the weathering of
rocks can be used successfully as base course materials.
 Table 5-4 contains three recommended particle size distributions
for suitable materials corresponding to maximum nominal sizes of
37.5 mm, 20 mm and 10 mm.
 Only the two larger sizes should be considered for traffic in
excess of 1.5 million equivalent standard axles.
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULAR MATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

17

 Table 5-4: Recommended Particle Size Distributions for

Mechanically Stable Natural Gravels and Weathered Rocks for Use
as Base Course Material (GB2, GB3)
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURING GRANULAR MATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

18

 Normal requirements for natural gravels and

weathered rocks (GB2, GB3)
 For maximum mechanical stability, the particle size distribution
should be approximately parallel with the grading envelope.
 The fraction coarser than 10 mm should consist of more than 40
per cent of particles with angular, irregular or crushed faces.
 The mixing of materials from different sources may be
warranted in order to achieve the required grading and surface
finish. This may involve adding fine or coarse materials or
combinations of the two.
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULAR MATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

19

 All grading analyses should be done on materials that have been

compacted. This is especially important if the aggregate fraction
is susceptible to breakdown under compaction and in service.
 The fine materials should preferably be non-plastic, with PI ≤
6. If the PI approaches the upper limit of 6, it is desirable that the
fines content be restricted to the lower end of the range.
 To ensure this, a maximum Plasticity Product (PP) of 60 is
recommended or alternatively a maximum Plasticity Modulus
(PM) of 90 where:
PP = PI x (percentage passing the 0.075 mm sieve)
PM = PI x (percentage passing the 0.425 mm sieve)
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULAR MATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

20

 If the plasticity criteria is not met, the material may be modified by the
addition of a low percentage of hydrated lime or cement.
 A field density of ≥ 98 percent of the maximum dry density (Heavy
Compaction) is specified. When compacted to this density in the
laboratory, the material should have a minimum CBR of 80% after
four days immersion in water.
 In Arid and semi-arid areas, high strengths are likely to develop even
when natural gravels containing a substantial amount of plastic fines
are used.
 In these situations, for the lowest traffic categories the maximum
allowable PI can be increased to 12 and the minimum soaked
CBR criterion reduced to 60% at the expected field density.
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULAR MATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

21

 Materials of basic igneous origin

 Are sometimes weathered and may release additional plastic fines
during construction or in service. Problems are likely to worsen if
water enters the pavement.
 The release of these minerals may lead to a consequent loss in
bearing capacity.
 The group includes common rocks such as basalts and dolerites.
 Normal aggregate tests are often unable to identify unsuitable
materials in this group. There are several methods of identifying
unsound aggregates:
 These include petro graphic analysis to detect secondary (clay)
minerals and the use of various chemical soundness tests, e.g.
sodium or magnesium sulphate (ASTM C 88).
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULAR MATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

22

 Indicative limits based on these tests include:

 a maximum secondary mineral content of 20%,
 a maximum loss of 12 or 20% after 5 cycles in the
sodium or magnesium sulphate tests, respectively.
 In some areas of Ethiopia, weathered basalt gravels are
available in large quantities. Studies show that these
materials stabilized with 3 percent of lime and surface
dressed provide alternative to crushed stone base
construction for main roads in Ethiopia.
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULAR MATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

23

 Materials of marginal quality

 Naturally occurring gravels which do not normally meet the normal
specifications for base course materials have occasionally been used
successfully. They include lateritic, calcareous and volcanic
gravels.
 In general their use should be confined to the lower traffic unless
local studies have shown successful performance at higher levels.
 Laterite gravels with PI between 6-12 and Plasticity Modulus
between 150-250 is recommended for use as base course material
for traffic volume up to 1.5 million ESA.
 The values towards higher range are valid for semi-arid and arid
areas of Ethiopia, i.e. with annual rainfall less than 500 mm.
 Sub Base Course Materials
24

 The sub-base is an important load spreading layer. It

enables traffic stresses to be reduced to acceptable levels
in the subgrade.
 It acts as a working platform for the construction of the
upper pavement layers and acts as a separation layer
between subgrade and base course.
 In some cases it also acts as a filter or drainage layer.
 In wet climatic conditions, the most stringent
requirements are dictated by the need to support
construction traffic and paving equipment. In such
cases, the sub-base material needs tight specification.
 Sub Base Course Materials
25

 In dry climatic conditions, in areas of good

drainage, and where the road surface remains well
sealed, unsaturated moisture conditions prevail and
sub-base specifications may be relaxed.
 The selection of sub-base materials will therefore
depend on the design function of the layer and the
anticipated moisture regime, both in service and
at construction.
 Sub Base Course Materials
26

 BEARING CAPACITY:
 A minimum CBR of 30 percent is required at the highest
anticipated moisture content when compacted to the
specified field density (a minimum of 95 per cent of
max. dry density, Heavy Compaction).
 Under conditions of good drainage and deeper water
table the field moisture content under a sealed pavement
will be ≤ OMC (Light Compaction).
 In such cases, the sub-base material should be tested in
the laboratory in an unsaturated state.
 Sub Base Course Materials
27

 BEARING CAPACITY:
 Except in arid areas, if the base course allows water to
drain into the lower layers, as may occur with unsealed
shoulders and poor surface maintenance, saturation of
the sub-base is likely.
 In such cases, the bearing capacity should be determined
on samples soaked in water for four days at density and
moisture content likely to be achieved in the field.

 Refer to Lecture Handout for recommended limits on soil

plasticity and particle size distribution of sub base materials !!!
 Sub Base Course Materials
28

 USE AS A CONSTRUCTION PLATFORM:

 Requirements for its ability to support construction
traffic without excessive deformation or raveling.
 For such situations, suitable material should possess
properties similar to those of a good surfacing material
for unpaved roads.
 The material should be well graded and have a plasticity
index at the lower end of the appropriate range for an
ideal unpaved road wearing course under the prevailing
climatic conditions.
 Sub Base Course Materials
29

 In the construction of low-volume roads, local experience

is often invaluable and a wider range of materials may often
be found to be acceptable.
 In Ethiopia, laterite is widely available and can be used as a
sub-base material.
 Laterite meeting the gradation requirements of Table 5-6
(Next Slide) can be used for traffic levels up to 3x106 ESA
provided the following criteria is satisfied:
 Sub Base Course Materials
30

 Table 5-5: Recommended Plasticity Characteristics for Granular SubBases

(GS)

 Table 5-6: Typical Particle Size Distribution for Sub-Bases (GS) Which Will
Meet Strength Requirements
 Sub Base Course Materials
31

SUB-BASE AS A FILTER OR SEPARATING LAYER

 This may be required to protect a drainage layer from blockage by a
finer material or to prevent migration of fines and the mixing of two
layers.
 The following criteria is used to evaluate a sub base as a separating or
filter layer:
a) The ratio D15(coarse layer) < 5
D85(fine layer)
Where D15 is the sieve size through which 15% by weight of the
material passes and D85 is the sieve size through which 85% passes.
b) The ratio D50(coarse layer) < 25
D50(fine layer)
 Sub Base Course Materials
32

SUB-BASE AS A FILTER OR SEPARATING LAYER

For a filter to possess the required drainage characteristics
a further requirement is:

c) The ratio D15(coarse layer) should lie between 5 and 40

D15(fine layer)

These criteria may be applied to the materials at both the

base course/sub-base and the sub-base/subgrade
interfaces.
 Selected Subgrade Materials &
Capping Layers (GC)
33

 These materials are often required to provide sufficient cover

on weak subgrades.
 They are used in the lower pavement layers as a substitute for
a thick sub-base to reduce costs (a cost comparison should be
conducted)
 As an illustrative example, approximately 30cm of “GC”
material placed on an S1 or S2 subgrade will allow selecting a
pavement structure as for an S3 subgrade.
 A minimum CBR of 15 percent is specified at the highest
anticipated moisture content when compacted to a minimum of
95 % of the maximum dry density (Heavy Compaction).
 Selected Subgrade Materials &
Capping Layers (GC)
34

 In estimating the likely soil moisture conditions, the designer

should take into account the functions of the overlying sub-base
layer and its expected moisture condition and the moisture
conditions in the subgrade.
 If either of these layers is likely to be saturated during the life of
the road, the selected layer should also be assessed in this state.
 Recommended gradation or plasticity criteria are not given for
these materials. However, it is desirable to select reasonably
homogeneous materials
 Materials which show the least variation in bearing capacity
from dry to wet are also beneficial.
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
35

 Gravel road pavements are generally utilized for

roads where design traffic flow Annual Average
Daily Traffic (AADT) is less than 200.
 ALL-WEATHER ACCESS: An essential
consideration in the design of gravel roads is to
ensure all-weather access.
 This requirement places particular emphasis on the need
for sufficient bearing capacity of the pavement structure
and provision of drainage and sufficient earthworks in
flood or problem soil areas (e.g. black cotton).
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
36

 SURFACE PERFORMANCE: The performance of the gravel

surface mainly depends on material quality, the location of
the road, and the volume of traffic using the road.
 Gravel roads passing through populated areas in particular
require materials that do not generate excessive dust in dry
weather.
 Steep gradients place particular demands on gravel wearing
course materials, which must not become slippery in wet
weather or erode easily.
 Gravel loss rates of about 25-30mm thickness a year per 100
vehicles per day is expected, depending on rainfall and
materials properties.
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
37

 MAINTENANCE: The material requirements for the gravel

wearing course include provision of a gravel surface that is
effectively maintainable.
 Adherence to the limits on oversize particles in the material is of
particular importance in this regard and will normally necessitate
the use of crushing or screening equipment during material
production activities.

 MARGINAL MATERIALS: Figure 5-1 illustrates the

performance characteristics to be expected of materials that do
not meet the requirements for gravel wearing course.
 Refinements and amendments of the standard material
specification may be necessary to overcome problem areas such
as towns (dust nuisance) or steep hills (slipperiness).
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
38

 Figure 5-1. Expected Performance of Gravel Wearing Course

Materials
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
39

 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS: Soils used for improved subgrade

layers shall be non-expansive and free from any deleterious matter.
They shall comply with the requirements shown in Table 5-7 (ERA
Specification).
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
40

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAVEL

WEARING COURSE
 The materials for gravel wearing course should satisfy the

following requirements that are often somewhat conflicting:

 They should have sufficient cohesion to prevent
raveling and corrugating (especially in dry conditions)
 The amount of fines should be limited to avoid a
slippery surface under wet conditions.
 Excessive oversize material in the gravel wearing course

affects the riding quality in service and makes effective

shaping of the surface difficult at the time of maintenance.
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
GRAVEL WEARING COURSE MATERIAL SPECIFICATION
41

 Selected material shall consist of hard durable angular particles

of fragments of stone or gravel. The material shall be free from
vegetable matter and lumps or balls of clay.
 Type 1
 The grading of the gravel after placing and compaction shall be a
smooth curve within and parallel to the recommended envelopes.
 Shall have a percentage of wear of not more than 50 at 500
revolutions (AASHTO T96).
 Shall be compacted to a minimum in-situ density 95% of the
maximum dry density (AASHTO T180).
 The PI should be 8 ≤ PI ≤ 15 for wet climatic zones and 10 ≤ PI
≤ 20 for dry climatic zones.
 The linear Shrinkage should be in a range of 3-10%.
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
GRAVEL WEARING COURSE MATERIAL SPECIFICATION
42

Type 2 & 3
 These materials may be more rounded particles fulfilling:
 PI within a range of 5-12% in wet areas, and in any case less than
16% in other areas
 Use of more rounded particles may allow the use of river gravel.
Trials should be conducted to verify whether crushing occurs
under traffic or whether crushing should be considered prior to
use.
 Subject to trials, a minimum percentage by weight of particles with
at least one fractured face of 40% may be considered.
 Except for very low traffic, the CBR should be in excess of 20 after
4 days of soaking at 95% of maximum dry density under Heavy
Compaction.
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
GRAVEL WEARING COURSE MATERIAL SPECIFICATION
43

Type 4
 This material gradation allows for larger size material and
corresponds to the gradation of a base course material.
 Its use is subject to the local experience and shall be used with PI in a
range of 10-20.
Type 5 & 6
 These material gradations are recommended for smaller size particles.
They may be used if sanctioned by experience with plasticity
characteristics as for material Type 1.
 Type 1 gravel wearing course is one of the best material alternatives
which shall be used on all roads with AADTdesign greater than 50.
 Type 1 material shall also be used for all routine and periodic
maintenance activities for both major and minor gravel roads.
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
GRAVEL WEARING COURSE MATERIAL SPECIFICATION
44

 Table 5-8 Gradation requirements for gravel wearing course (ERA)

45

Questions?