PROCESS

A process is an instance of a program in

execution. It needs certain resources such as
CPU time, memory, files and I/O devices. It also
needs to request for all the resources needed.
As the request is granted by the operating
system, these resources are used and then
released when the process ends.
A program may contain many processes which
may be sequentially executed. The program by
itself is not considered a process because it is
a passive entity found in a file on a disk The
process is an active entity which is already in
execution and as it executes.
Each process may be in one of the following
states:
• New or Held a process which has just been
created and has not yet been loaded in
memory
Each process may be in one of the following
states:
• Ready a process that is allocated a space in
the primary storage and waiting to be
dispatched to the processor. These ready
processes are placed in a queue so that the
operating system can keep track which of
the processes will be selected for execution.
Each process may be in one of the following
states:
• Running - a process instruction being
executed, was allotted time in the processor.
The running process may lose its time in the
processor for some reasons and may either
be transferred back to the ready queue, to
the waiting queue for an event completion;
or release by the operating system.
Each process may be in one of the following
states:
• Blocked or Waiting - a process waiting for
some events to occur (like I/O completion)
before it can continue executing. It does not
require services of the processor until the
blocking event is completed.
• Exit, Halted or terminated
PROCESS STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM
PROCESS SCHEDULER
Scheduling affects the performance of the
system because it determines which
processes will wait and which will
progress. Scheduling is a matter of
managing queues to minimize queuing
delay and to optimize performance in a
queuing environment.
PROCESS SCHEDULER
Operating system features three types of
schedulers namely Long-term or job or
admission scheduler, short-term or CPU
scheduler and medium-term or midterm
scheduler. The names connote that
frequency with which the function is used.
TYPES OF SCHEDULER
Long term Schedulers
The Long-term scheduler is responsible for
choosing jobs or processes to be admitted
and placed in the ready queue. It controls
the degree of multiprogramming, that is the
number of jobs or processes which can be
admitted in the ready queue at a given
time.
Long term Schedulers
It picks out jobs to be admitted based on
certain criteria like memory capacity,
priority, burst time, etc. A mix of I/O
intensive (I/O bound) jobs and CPU
intensive (CPU bound) jobs are considered
so that components within the computer
system are given equal share of work.
Long term Schedulers
If all jobs entering are I/O intensive, the
CPU will be idle most of the time while the
I/O queue traffic will be heavy. On the other
hand, if all jobs entered are CPU intensive,
the CPU will be very busy while I/O devices
will be idle. Hence, a well-balanced job mix
is required for greater system efficiency.
Short term Scheduler
The short term, dispatcher or CPU
scheduler is responsible for choosing jobs
or processes to be executed or allotted the
CPU. It creates decision more frequently
than the long-term or medium-term
scheduler and sees to it that processes
coming in are able to finish on or before the
deadline.
Medium-Term Scheduler
The medium term scheduler serves as a
swapper of processes from primary
storage to secondary storage or vice-versa.
It is available in systems with virtual
memory. It is responsible for "swapping-in"
and "swapping-out" processes.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN PROCESS SCHEDULING

CPU Scheduling refers to the sequence or

order of process execution as they are
allotted the processor. The scheduler
assigned to do the task is the short-term
scheduler.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN PROCESS SCHEDULING
The many ways of allotting the processor to
a specific job or process is known as the
CPU scheduling algorithm. The main
purposes of scheduling algorithms are to
minimize resource starvation and to ensure
fairness among the parties utilizing the
resources.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN PROCESS SCHEDULING
Evaluation of the best CPU scheduling
algorithm takes into account the following
criteria:
1. Increase CPU utilization. The main goal is
to make the CPU busy processing at all
times. CPU utilization is the ratio of the total
CPU burst and the total time used up for
processing all the jobs in the ready queue.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN PROCESS SCHEDULING
Evaluation of the best CPU scheduling
algorithm takes into account the following
criteria:
1. Increase CPU utilization. It is the
percentage of time the processor is busy.
The greater the CPU utilization, the better the
performance of the specific CPU scheduling
algorithm.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN PROCESS SCHEDULING
2. Increase throughput. Throughput refers to the
number of processes that has completed their
execution per time unit. It measures how much
work is being performed in a given time. This is
dependent on the average length or burst time of
a process and may also be influenced by the
scheduling algorithm. More processes
completing in a given time would mean greater
throughput.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN PROCESS SCHEDULING
3. Reduce Turn-around time. Turn-around
time is the amount of time to execute
particular processes. It refers to the time
when the process was submitted up to its
time of completion. It includes actual
execution time and time spent waiting for the
resources. Shorter turn-around time is better.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN PROCESS SCHEDULING
4. Reduce Waiting time. Waiting
time refers to the amount of time a
process has been waiting in the
ready queue before it was allotted
the processor. A shorter waiting
time is better for all processes.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN PROCESS SCHEDULING
5. Reduce Response time. Response
time is the amount of time it takes
when a request was submitted till
the first response is produced.
Shorter response time is better.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN PROCESS SCHEDULING
According to J. Archer Harris, other scheduling
criteria which may be considered are balanced
utilization, predictability, fairness and priorities.
6. Balanced Utilization evaluates the percentage
utilization of not only the CPU but also the
memory, I/O devices, and other system
resources.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN PROCESS SCHEDULING
7. Predictability refers to consistency in response
time.
8. Fairness in scheduling refers to the equal
opportunity given to all processes to
execute such that no one is allowed to suffer
from starvation.
9. Preferential treatment to processes with higher
priorities may also be considered as a criterion.