THE FIRST WORLD

WAR
THE WORLD IN 1914
 Europe Dominated the World
 Though the US and Japan were major emerging powers, European nations were still the
major global powers – France, Britain and Germany especially.
 But the political systems were very different:
 USA, Britain, and France had democracies
 Germany had an elected Lower House (Reichstag) but the real power was with the
Chancellor
 Italy and Japan too had elected parliaments, but franchise was limited
 Russia and Austria-Hungary had monarchies – autocratic and absolute rulers.
 The Race for Colonies
 Imperialism: the building of empires by seizing territories overseas  to gain new
sources of raw materials and new markets.
 After 1880, there was a speeding up of imperial expansion
 “Scramble for Africa”  the African continent was divided between the major European
powers
 Colonies in Asia
 “Cutting of the Chinese Melon”  the Chinese Empire was declining, and European
nations, the USA, and Japan were carving their own spheres of influence here; eventually,
the Chinese Revolution overthrew the final dynasty (Manchu) and set up a Republic in
1911.
 Europe had Divided Itself into Two Alliance Systems
 Starting from the late 19th century, the major powers began to be divided into alliance camps:
 The Triple Alliance:

Germany
Austria-Hungary
Italy
 The Triple Entente:

Britain
France
Russia
 The Triple Alliance was created mostly through the efforts of the German Chancellor Otto von
Bismarck as protection against France  The Austro-German Alliance of 1879 became the
Triple Alliance after Italy was added to it in 1882.
 Initially, Russia concluded agreements with the German-led bloc. But after Wilhelm II became
Emperor, he allowed the connection with Russia to lapse led to the formation in a Franco-
Russian alliance in 1891-94.
 Still, for a time the two groupings balanced each other, and Russia and France were in rivalry
not only with Germany but also (in Central Asia and in Africa) with Britain.

 Friction Between Nations

 Naval rivalry between Britain and France
 Franco-German rivalry, especially over France’s loss of Alsace and Lorraine after the Franco-
Prussian War of 1871
 Germany accused France, Russia, and England of trying to encircle them
 Conflict between Serbia and Austria-Hungary
 Colonial Rivalry between the major European powers
CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD
WAR
CREATION OF ALLIANCES
 The Triple Alliance
 Following a series of military victories from
1862 to 1871, the German state was formed.
Bismarck feared that neighboring nations,
particularly France and Austria-Hungary,
might act to destroy Germany
 He wanted a careful series of alliances and
foreign policy decisions that would stabilize
the balance of power in Europe. Without
them, he believed, another continental war
was inevitable.
 The Dual Alliance: Bismarck knew an alliance with France was impossible: French angry
over loss of the province of Alsace-Lorraine. Britain, meanwhile, was pursuing a policy
of disengagement and was reluctant to form any European alliances.
 Bismarck turned to Austria-Hungary and Russia  in 1873, the Three Emperors League
was created, pledging mutual wartime support among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and
Russia. Russia withdrew in 1878, and Germany and Austria-Hungary formed the Dual
Alliance in 1879.
 The Dual Alliance promised that the parties would aid each other if Russia attacked them
or if Russia assisted another power at war with either nation.
 The Triple Alliance: In 1882, Italy joined Germany and Austria-Hungry, leading to the
formation of the Triple Alliance.
 All three nations pledged support should any of them be attacked by France. If any
member found itself at war with two or more nations at once, the alliance would come to
their aid. 
  Italy insisted on a final clause  no aid if a Triple Alliance members were the aggressor.
Shortly after, Italy signed a deal with France, pledging support if Germany attacked them.
 Reinsurance Treaty with Russia: 1887; Bismarck wanted to avoid fighting a war on two
fronts  signed a "reinsurance treaty" with Russia: both nations would remain neutral if
one was involved in a war with a third party.
 This was not applicable if Germany invaded France or Russian invaded Austria-Hungary
 This was a secret agreement; only a few top officials knew of it.
 However, this treaty lasted only until 1890, when it was allowed to lapse by the
government that replaced Bismarck.
 Once Bismarck was voted out of power, his carefully crafted foreign policy began to
crumble. Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm II followed an aggressive policy of militarization –
wanted the creation of a German Empire. As a result, Britain, Russia, and France
strengthened their own ties.
 Triple Entente
 Franco-Russian Military Convention: 1892; both nations agreed to support each other if
they were to be involved in a war with a third nation. This treaty was largely a result of
the Russo-German Reinsurance Treaty lapsing.
  Russia was wary of the growing power of Germany and its recent offer of help to the
Ottoman Empire, a long-time object of Russian expansionist goals. Germany was also the
ally of Austria-Hungary, the enemy of Russia in the Balkans, an area that Russia
considered within its sphere of influence.
 Entente Cordiale: Between France and Britain in 1904; based on mutual fear of German
expansion  ended Britain’s “splendid isolation” (a policy of avoiding permanent
alliances)
 A similar agreement was signed between Britain and Russia in 1907  led to the creation
of the Triple Entente.
 In 1912, the Anglo-French Naval Agreement tied the two nations together more closely.
 The main purpose of the Triple Entente was protection against the Triple Alliance
 Other countries also joined (or left) the Alliances. Eventually, the two sides were:
 The Allies or Entente Powers: Britain and her Empire

France
Russia (left in 1917)
Serbia, Belgium, Romania (joined in 1916)
Italy (joined in May 1915)
USA (joined April 1917)
Japan (already had alliances with Britain and France
 The Central Powers: Germany

Austria-Hungary
Italy (left in 1917)
Turkey (joined in November 1914)
Bulgaria (joined in October 1915)
GERMAN AMBITIONS AND
EXPANSION
 The Kingdom of Prussia became Germany through the conquest and unification of
German speaking kingdoms – Kaiser Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.
 This changed the balance of power in Europe.
 Under Bismarck, Germany entered a series of Alliances to protect itself; this led to
creation of alliances by other major European powers for protection against possible
future German threat.
 Bismarck had been cautious; didn’t want Germany to be entangled in any major
global rivalries, including colonial rivalry  kept Germany out of the colonial race.
 Kaiser Wilhelm I agreed; but his successor Wilhelm II was more ambitious.
 From 1898 onwards, Germany began to create a battle fleet. A shipbuilding arms race with
Britain soon began.
 From 1906, this naval race became focused on the construction of a new class of battleship
developed in Britain – the dreadnought. Designed around the firepower of heavy guns and
powered by steam turbines, these huge vessels made all earlier warships obsolete. In both
countries, the public – encouraged by the press, popular authors and naval pressure groups –
demanded more battleships.
 Germany could not keep up with the Royal Navy in the short term and, in 1910, began to
redirect much of its defence spending to the Army. 
THE BALKAN CRISES
 Located at the crossroads of three major
empires (Ottoman, Russian and Austro-
Hungarian) and with access to several
important waterways, the Balkan region
was strategically vital.
 For this reason, the area had for centuries
been a gateway between East and West, an
area of cultural and mercantile exchange
and a melting pot of ethnicities and people.
 For centuries, the Balkan peninsula was ruled by the
powerful Ottoman Empire. By the late 1800s, however, the
Ottoman Empire was retracting.
 This led to the emergence of nationalist and independence
movements in the Balkans. During this period Greece,
Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria all gained independence
from Ottoman rule.
 “Eastern Question”  Western European powers
developed a strong interest in the Balkan region, driven by
concerns about what might happen once the Ottoman
Empire disintegrated.
 Russia: hoped to expand its territory by moving into the
region. The Russian navy, with its ports on the Black Sea,
wanted access and control of the Bosphorus, which
provided shipping access to the Mediterranean.
 Britain: opposed to Russian expansion so wanted the Ottoman Empire to remain intact for
as long as possible, to serve as a buffer against the Russians.
 Germany: hoped to acquire bankrupt Ottoman regions as vassal states or colonies.

 The Two Balkan Wars

 In 1912, several Balkan nations, largely influenced by Russia, signed a series of military
alliances  formation of the Balkan League.
 Aim: to wage war on the Ottomans and drive them out of eastern Europe.
 The League declared war in October 1912; emerged victorious after just eight months of
fighting.
 In June 1913, Bulgaria launched a surprise attack on its former Balkan League allies (2 nd
Balkan War)  wanted more territory. The Bulgarians were defeated by the Greeks,
Serbians and Romanians in barely a month.
 The Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) penalised Bulgaria severely, leaving it hostile
towards its Balkan neighbours.
 The Serbs, victorious in both Balkan Wars, were the main beneficiary of these conflicts.
The Serbian nation almost doubled in size, due to the acquisition of Kosovo and parts of
Macedonia and Albania.
 The two Balkan wars forced the great powers to revisit their foreign policy in the region –
especially Russia, which was now dependent on Serbia as a buffer against Austro-
Hungarian aggression.
 Serbia’s territorial gains led to a sharp increase in Serbian nationalism: Several Serb
nationalist groups formed in the early 1900s and flourished over the next decade. Their
primary aim was to free Serbia from foreign control and influence, particularly from
Austria-Hungary.
 Growth of Serbian Nationalism
 The Serbian government of King Milan, and later his son Alexander, had been pro-
Austrian.
 However, the Serbian nationalists bitterly resented the fact that by the Treaty of Berlin
signed in 1878, the Austrians had been a11owed to occupy Bosnia, an area which the
Serbs thought should be part of a Greater Serbia.
 The nationalists saw Alexander as a traitor; in 1903 he and his wife were murdered by a
group of army officers, who put Peter Karageorgevic on the throne.
 The change of regime caused a dramatic switch in Serbian policy: the Serbs now became
pro-Russian and wanted to unite all Serbs and Croats into a large South Slav kingdom
(Yugoslavia).
 Many of these Serbs and Croats lived inside the borders of the Habsburg Empire (Austria-
Hungary).
 However, there were other ethnicities there – Germans, Hungarians, Magyars, Czechs,
Slovaks, Italians, Poles, Romanians, Ruthenians and Slovenes, as well as Serbs and
Croats. If the Serbs left, many of the others would demand their independence as well,
and the Hapsburg Empire would break up.
 Consequently, some Austrians wanted a “preventive war” to destroy Serbia before she
became strong enough to provoke the break-up of their empire. The Austrians also
resented Russian support for Serbia.
 In 1908, the Austro-Hungarians formally annexed Bosnia (had 3 million Serbs) and
Herzegovina. This roused nationalist movements in the region.
 The Serbs appealed for help to Russia, who called for a European conference, expecting
French and British support.
 When it became clear that Germany would support Austria in the event of war, the French
drew back, unwilling to become involved in a war in the Balkans.
 The British wanted to avoid a conflict with Germany; only protested to Austria-Hungary.
 The Russians, still smarting from their defeat by Japan, dared not risk another war without
the support of their allies.
 But they did begin massive military build-up and modernization of the army, together
with an improvement in their railway system to allow faster mobilization.
 In Serbia, groups like the People’s Defence, Black Hand, and Young Bosnia were formed
between 1908-1911 with the mission of driving out the Austro-Hungarians.
 These groups were encouraged by Russian agents, as well as individuals in the Serbian
government, public service and military. Most of their activities involved political
agitation or the production of anti-Austrian propaganda – but some volunteers trained for
and plotted acts of terrorism  the most significant was the assassination of Archduke
Ferdinand, which set of a series of events that led to a world war.
 Serbian expansion was seen as threat by Austria-Hungary. The Hapsburg empire had
already surrendered significant territory to the Italians and the Russians in the 1870s.
Developments in the Balkans in 1912-13, they feared, would lead to more losses.
 ASSASSINATION OF AUSTRIAN
ARCHDUKE FRANZ FERDINAND
 The immediate cause of the war.
 Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia, on 28 June
1914.
 He was the nephew and heir to the Emperor
Franz Josef; was on an official visit to
Sarajevo when he and his wife Sofia were
shot dead by a Serb, Gavrilo Princip.
 There were other conspirators as well, all
suspected of being part of a Serbian secret
society.
  Austria knew that conflict with Serbia would
likely involve Russia, which saw itself as Serbia's
protector.
 Austria-Hungary turned to its own ally  on 5
July, Germany promised Austria full support
against Serbia.
 Austria-Hungary's aggression towards Serbia and
Russian support for Serbia in the aftermath of the
assassination stemmed from fears that, if either
backed down, they would lose credibility and
prestige as great powers. 
 23 July: With the guarantee of German backing,
Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum on 23 July.
The Serbs accepted most of the demands, but
agreeing to the rest would mean loosing their
sovereignty.
  Austria rejected the Serbian reply, which conceded to all the ultimatum's terms except the
involvement of Austro-Hungarian officials in an inquiry into the assassination.
 28 July: Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Austria-Hungary was prepared to risk
war because it had the guarantee of German support.
 30 July:  Russia ordered its forces to prepare for war.
 While the Russians viewed this mobilisation as a precaution in case war broke out, the
Germans saw it as an aggressive act of war directed against itself and Austria-Hungary.
Germany's war plan was time-sensitive, being based upon beating France before Russia
could get its army fully into action. 
 31 July: Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia demanding it demobilise. The next day,
this ultimatum expired without a reply.
 1 August: Germany declared war on Russia and ordered its own general mobilisation.
 France knew that it faced German invasion, but it was already a Russian ally. Many
Frenchmen also hoped that war could settle old grievances with Germany stemming from
the 1870.
 3 August: Germany declared war on France.
 Throughout the crisis, Russia and France were putting increased pressure on the British to
declare their support. But under the terms of its agreements with Russia and France, Britain
had no obligation to fight.
 From 24 July, British Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey tried to organise an international
peace conference to prevent further escalation – no success.
 Then Germany invaded Belgium on their way to invade France  Belgium’s neutrality had
been guaranteed in a treaty signed by major European powers, including Britain, in 1839.
On the evening of 2 August 1914, Germany demanded that its troops be allowed to pass
through Belgian territory. Belgium refused.
 4 August: Germany invades Belgium
 Britain demanded their withdrawal, but was refused.
 4 August: Britain declared war on Germany
 6 August: Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia. Others countries joined later.
 https://www.loc.gov/collections/stars-and-stripes/articles-and-essays/a-world-at-war/timeline-1
914-1921/