Module 7

Durability

Prepared by: Engr. Abdul Masroor Khan

 Permeability
The rate of flow of water (which may carry aggressive agents)
through concrete is of interest.

Measured by a permeability coefficient, Kp, described by

D’Arcy’s law:
dq/dt = Kp (h/x) A
Where dq/dt is the rate of flow
A and x are the area and thickness through which flow occurs
h is the pressure head of the fluid
 Permeability
• Controlled by the interconnectivity of voids and
cracks
Permeability: Influence of SCMs
 Forms of Attack on Concrete

Chemical – alkali-aggregate reactions, sulfate attack,

acid attack, carbonation

Electrochemical – corrosion

Physical Attack – freeze/thaw, abrasion, erosion, fire

 Alkali-Aggregate Reactions

Aggregates containing certain constituents can react with alkali hydroxides in

concrete.
The reactivity is potentially harmful only when it produces significant expansion
(Mather 1975). This alkali-aggregate reactivity (AAR) has two forms—alkali-
silica reaction (ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). ASR is of more
concern than ACR because the occurrence of aggregates containing reactive silica
minerals is more common. Alkali-reactive carbonate aggregates have a specific
composition that is not very common.
 Alkali-Aggregate Reactions

Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) is most common form

Alkalis
(from cement or de- Concrete
icing salts) ASR Gel
expansion
+ which
and
Reactive Silica expands
cracking
(in some aggregate)
+
Moisture
 Alkali-Silica Reaction

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 Alkali-Silica Reaction
Concrete performance
• Exterior manifestations of damage include
irregular, “map” cracks, and staining
• Expansion
• Loss of strength and stiffness
• Increased permeability
• Premature failure of concrete structures
 How to prevent damage by ASR
Alkalis + Reactive Silica + Moisture Expansive ASR Gel
Avoid high alkali content:
• use low alkali portland cement: Na2Oeq < 0.60%
• Reduce alkali content in concrete < 5 lb/cu. yd.
• partial replacement of cement with low alkali mineral
admixtures

Avoid reactive aggregate (containing reactive silica)

Control access to water: low w/c, proper placement and curing,

use SCMs to decrease permeability

Use lithium containing chemical admixtures to control ASR.

 Sulfate
Attack

Indications: efflorescence, softening, spalling, cracking, expansion

 Sulfate
Attack
Susceptibility to sulfate damage is related to:
• sulfate concentration
• concrete permeability

To avoid damage by sulfate attack, specify:

• appropriate cement type
• appropriate w/c
• supplementary cementitious mateirals
• good construction practices and curing
 Sulfate
0.7
Attack
w/
0.6 c=0.42
w/c=0.4
Expansion (%)

0.5 7
w/c=0.4
w/c=0.57
0.4 9
w/c=0.62
w/c=0.5
w/
0.3
3
c=0.67
0.2

0.1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (years)
C3A content = 6%
 Sulfate
Attack
fly ash=41.7% w/c=0.46
0.5
C3A=6.0%
0.45
fly ash=25.0% w/c=0.49
0.4 C3A=5.7%
expansion (%)

0.35 fly ash=0% w/c=0.46

0.3 C3A=5.9%
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
time (years)
 Corrosion
Requirements for corrosion:
(1) anode; produces electrons
(2) cathode; accepts electrons
(3) oxygen
(4) water
(5) conductive electrolyte
(6) Passive Film
 Corrosion in Concrete
(1) & (2) anodic and cathodic regions develop on
embedded metal
(3), (4), & (5) availability of oxygen and water and concrete
resistivity are dependent on permeability
(6) in concrete, a protective
passive film must be
penetrated or removed
 Passivation
A metal or alloy is considered passive when it resists corrosion in a
thermodynamically favorable environment.

• May consist of some

combination of FeOOH,
some form of Fe2O3, and High pH Environment
Fe3O4

• Thinner than 2 nm Steel

• Depassivation occurs by
decreased alkalinity
(pH<11.5) or attack by
aggressive ions (e.g., Cl- Passive Layer
or SO42-). of ??? Composition
 Depassivation: Carbonation
Calcium hydroxide in the
hydrated cement paste reacts to
Carbonated
form insoluble calcium concrete,
carbonate and insoluble pH<8
bicarbonate:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 +H2O x = k t1/2
Ca(OH)2 + H2CO3  CaCO3 +2H2O dx/dt = 1 mm/year
for good quality
CaCO3 + CO2 +H2O - ↔
concrete
Ca(HCO3)2
 Corrosion Reactions
Steel corrosion rate is
dependent on the rate of
iron oxidation at the anode:
Fe  Fe++ + 2e-
Electrons released at the
anode are consumed at
the cathode by reduction
 Corrosion effects

• Loss of steel cross- section

• Debonding of steel and concrete
• Cracking and eventual spalling of concrete
• Increased permeability
• Embrittlement of concrete by diffusion of
corrosion products
• Reduction in service life
Relative Cost of Methods to Avoid
Corrosion

Epoxy coating of Reinforcing Steel (8%)

(1994 Cost data provided by Gerwick)

Freeze/Thaw
Freeze-thaw
scaling

D-cracking

pop-outs
 Avoid Damage by Freeze-Thaw
• entrain 6-8% air
• low w/c
• use mineral admixtures
• proper placement and
curing
• avoid porous
aggregate
 Abrasion and Erosion
Abrasion - progressive loss of mass from
concrete surface by dry attrition (e.g.,
pavement wear)
Erosion – same but by wet processes

To avoid abrasion/erosion damage:

• densely graded, strong and hard aggregate
– enough fines to densify the surface
• >4000 psi concrete (ACI 201)
• low w/c
• max slump 3”
• sodium nitrate seal
 Fire Resistance
While steel structures conduct heat rapidly, concrete is an
insulator
• Concrete has inherent fire resistance and is a material ideally
suited for providing fire safe construction
• While concrete walls can generally withstand up to four hours of
extreme fire pressure, most wood-framed walls would fall in less
than an hour
• heat is consumed, evaporating the free water in paste and
aggregate as steam  cracking and spalling
• water loss and decomposition cause loss of strength and high
shrinkage. But the core, including the reinforcement, can
remain relatively unaffected for several hours.