ENGINEERING Chapter 4: The

time value of
ECONOMY money
 The objectives
-To explain time value of money
calculations;

-To illustrate economic equivalence.

I. Introduction
1. Money has a time value.
From now we examine the capital (money/property)
has the time value.
A dollar today is worth more than a dollar one or
more years from now because of:
 interest rate,
 inflation (deflation),
 currency exchange

- The riskest thing a person can do with money is

nothing (money has value, if money remain
uninvested, value is lost)
2. Why consider return to capital?
(in the form of interest is an essential ingredient of EE studies)

 Interest (profit) pay the providers of capital during

the time the capital is being used.
 Interest are payments for the risk the investor takes
in letting another use his or her capital.
 Any project or venture must provide a sufficient
return to be financially attractive to the suppliers of
money or property.
II. Simple & Compound Interest
• Simple interest • Compound interest
I = the total interest earned or paid.
P = principal amount lent or
borrowed.
N = number of interest periods
i = interest rate per interest period

Ex1: If $1,000 were loaned for three years

at a simple interest rate of 10% per year, the
interest earned would be (1)
Beginning (2)=(1)x0.1 (3)=(1)+(2)
I = $1,000 x 3 x 0.1 = $300 Period Amount Interest Balance
1 $1,000 $100 $1,100
So, the total amount repaid at the end of 3
years: (1,000) + (300) = $1,300. 2 $1,100 $110 $1,210
3 $1,210 $121 $1,331
II. The concept of equivalence
(Economic equivalence allows us to compare alternatives on a common basis)

• Each alternative can be reduced to an

equivalent basis dependent on
– interest rate,
– amount of money involved, and
– timing of monetary receipts or expenses.
• Using these elements we can “move” cash
flows so that we can compare them at
particular points in time.
V. Notation & cash-flow diagrams & tables
1. Notation used in formulas for compound interest calculations

i = effective interest rate per interest period

N = number of compounding (interest) periods
P = present sum of money; equivalent value of one or more
cash flows at a reference point in time; the present
F = future sum of money; equivalent value of one or more cash
flows at a reference point in time; the future
A = end-of-period cash flows in a uniform series continuing
for a certain number of periods, starting at the end of the
first period and continuing through the last
 2. Some tools to find economic equivalence.
 a cash flow diagram employs several conventions (see
following figure):
A time scale: the horizontal line (Example: N=4 month)
Arrows signify cash flows:
- Upward arrows represent receipts (Ex: Receipts of $17690.27 at
the end of month 4)
- Downward arrows represent expenses (Ex: initial investment of
$17,000 at the beginning of moth 1)
Cash flow diagram is depend on
the point of view. (Ex: this figure
is developed based on cash flow
as seen by the lender
(company’s viewpoint).

a cash flow table (excel)

Before evaluating the economic merits of a proposed
investment, the XYZ Corporation insists that its engineers
develop a cash-flow diagram of the proposal. An investment
of $10,000 can be made that will produce uniform annual
revenue of $5,310 for five years and then have a market
(recovery) value of $2,000 at the end of year (EOY) five.
Annual expenses will be $3,000 at the end of each year for
operating and maintaining the project. Draw a cash-flow
diagram for the five-year life of the project. Use the
corporation’s viewpoint.
VI. Relating P and F equivalent values of single cash flows.
1. Finding F when given P

Year Amount owed at Interest owed for Amount owed at Total end-of-
start of year each year end of year year payment
1 P= $8,000 iP= $800 P(1+i)=$8,800 0
2 P(1+i) = $8,800 iP(1+i) =$ 880 P(1+i)2=$9,680 0
3 P(1+i)2 = $9,680 iP(1+i)2 = $968 P(1+i)3=$10,648 0
4 P(1+i)3 = $10,648 iP(1+i)3 = $1,065 P(1+i)4=$11,713 F=$11,713
In general, we see that F = P(1+i)N, and the total amount to be repaid is $11,713

The (1+i)N: the single payment compound amount factor.

It can be found in the appendix C as (F/P,i%,N)
F = P(F/P,i%,N) = $8000(F/P, 10%, 4) =$8000(1.4641)
= $11,713
2. Finding P given F

The (1+i)-N is called the single payment present worth

factor. It also can be found in the appendix C as (P/F, i%,
N).
So: P = F(P/F, i%, N)
 Example: $2,500 at time zero is equivalent to how much after
six years if the interest rate is 8% per year?

 Example: $3,000 at the end of year seven is equivalent to how

much today (time zero) if the interest rate is 6% per year?
VII. Relating a uniform series(A) to its P&F equivalent
values.

1. Finding F when given A

Ex: How much will you have in 40 years if you

save $3,000 each year and your account earns
8% interest each year?
2. Finding P when given A.

How much would is needed today to provide

an annual amount of $50,000 each year for
20 years, at 9% interest each year?
3. Finding A when given F.

How much would you need to set aside each

year for 25 years, at 10% interest, to have
accumulated $1,000,000 at the end of the 25
years?
4. Finding A when given P.

If you had $500,000 today in an account earning

10% each year, how much could you withdraw
each year for 25 years?
5. Challenging to solve for N or i.

• We may know P, A, and i and want to find N.

• We may know P, A, and N and want to find i.
• These problems present special challenges
that are best handled on a spreadsheet.
5.1 Finding N
Acme borrowed $100,000 from a local bank, which
charges them an interest rate of 7% per year. If Acme
pays the bank $8,000 per year, now many years will it
take to pay off the loan?

So,

This can be solved by using the interest tables and

interpolation, but we generally resort to a computer
solution.
 5.2 Finding i
Jill invested $1,000 each year for five years in a local
company and sold her interest after five years for
$8,000. What annual rate of return did Jill earn?

So,

Again, this can be solved using the interest tables and

interpolation, but we generally resort to a computer
solution.
5.3 Using spreadsheet functions to find N and i.
1. NPER(rate, pmt (A), pv (P) ),
which will compute the number of payments of
magnitude pmt required to pay off a present amount
(pv) at a fixed interest rate (rate).
2. RATE(nper, pmt (A), pv (P), fv (F)),
which returns a fixed interest rate for an annuity of
pmt that lasts for nper periods to either its present
value (pv) or future value (fv).

EE textbook, 15edition:
Prob. 4.2, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, 4.12, 4.13, 4.24, 4.30
VIII. Deferred Annuities (Uniform Series)
We need to be able to handle cash flows that do not occur until some time in the
future.

• Deferred annuities are uniform series that do not begin

until some time in the future.
Remember
If the annuity is deferred J periods (J<N), then the
first payment (cash flow) begins at the end of period
J+1.
Finding the value at time 0 of a deferred
annuity is a two-step process.
a. Use (P/A, i%, N-J) find the value of the deferred
annuity at the end of period J (where there are N-J
cash flows in the annuity).
b. Use (P/F, i%, J) to find the value of the deferred
annuity at time zero.
So:
IX. Uniform Gradient (G).
Sometimes cash flows change by a constant amount each period.

The table below shows such a gradient.

End of Period Cash Flows
1 (0)G = 0
2 (1)G = G
3 (2)G
: :
N (N-1)G

Note: The first uniform gradient cash flow, G,

occurs at the end of period two.
1. Finding P, A, or F when given G.
Similar to the other types of cash flows, there is a formula we can use to find the
present value, and a set of factors developed for interest tables.

P = G (P/G, i%, N)

A = G (A/G, i%, N)

F = G (F/G, i%, N)
The annual equivalent of
this series of cash flows can
be found by considering an
annuity portion of the cash
flows and a gradient
portion. i = 8%
End of Year Annuity ($) Gradient ($)
1 2,000 0
2 2,000 (1)*1,000
3 2,000 2,000=(2)*1000

4 2,000 3,000=(3)*1000

P0 = ?
X. Geometric gradient
Sometimes cash flows change by a constant rate, , each period - this is a geometric
gradient series.

This table presents a

geometric gradient series. It
begins at the end of year 1 End of Year Cash Flows ($)
and has a rate of growth, , 1 1,000
of 20%.
2 1,200
3 1,440
4 1,728
1. Find the P of a geometric series by using
the appropriate formula below.

P= i

P=
Where is the initial cash flow in the series.
 XI. Interest rates that vary with time.
• Interest rates often change with time (e.g., a variable rate
mortgage).
• We often must resort to moving cash flows one period at a
time, reflecting the interest rate for that single period.
1. Find P. The present equivalent of a cash flow occurring at the end of period N can be
computed with the equation below, where ik is the interest rate for the kth period.

If F4 = $2,500 and i1=8%, i2=10%, and i3=11%, then

XII. Nominal and effective interest rates.
• More often than not, the time between successive
compounding, or the interest period, is less than
one year (e.g., daily, monthly, quarterly).
• The annual rate is known as a nominal rate.
• A nominal rate of 12%, compounded monthly,
means an interest of 1% (12%/12) would accrue
each month, and the annual rate would be
effectively somewhat greater than 12%.
• The more frequent the compounding the greater
the effective interest.
1. The effect of more frequent compounding can
be easily determined.
Let r be the nominal, annual interest rate and M the
number of compounding periods per year. We can find, i,
the effective interest by using the formula below.
Ex.: Finding effective interest rates.

For an 18% nominal rate, compounded quarterly, the

effective interest is.

For a 7% nominal rate, compounded monthly, the

effective interest is.
2. Interest can be compounded continuously.

• Interest is typically compounded at the end of

discrete periods.
• In most companies, cash is always flowing, and
should be immediately put to use.
• We can allow compounding to occur
continuously throughout the period.
• The effect of this compared to discrete
compounding is small in most cases.
We can use the effective interest formula to
derive the interest factors.

As the number of compounding periods gets larger

(M gets larger), we find that
Continuous compounding interest factors.

The other factors can be found from these.

EE textbook, 15edition:
4.31, 4.52, 4.54, 4.57, 4.66, 4.77, 4.91, 4.97, 4.116