CHAPTER SIX:

DESIGN OF CHANNELS AND

IRRIGATION STRUCTURES
6.1 DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR
STEADY UNIFORM FLOW

 Channels are very important in

Engineering projects especially in
Irrigation and, Drainage.
 Channels used for irrigation are
normally called canals
 Channels used for drainage are
normally called drains.
 6.1.1 ESTIMATION OF CANAL
DESIGN FLOWS (Q)
 For Irrigation Canals, Design Flows are estimated Using
the Peak Gross Irrigation Requirement
 For Example, in a Location with the Peak Gross Irrigation
Requirement of 7.69 mm/day.

 Peak flow (Q) = 7.69/1000 m x 10000 x 1/3600 x
1/24 x 1000
 = 0.89 L/s/ha
 For a canal serving an area of 1000 ha, canal design
flow is then 890 L/s or 0.89 m 3 /s.
 Typically, for humid areas, magnitude of discharges are in
the range of 0.5 to 1.0 L/s/ha.
6.1.2        Dimensions of Channels
and Definitions
 Definitions

 a) Freeboard: Vertical distance between

the highest water level anticipated in the design
and the top of the retaining banks. It is a safety
factor to prevent the overtopping of structures.
  
 b) Side Slope (Z): The ratio of the horizontal
to vertical distance of the sides of the channel.
Z = e/d = e’/D
 Table 6.1: Maximum Canal Side
Slopes (Z)
Sand, Soft Clay 3: 1 (Horizontal:
Vertical)
Sandy Clay, Silt Loam, 2:1
Sandy Loam
Fine Clay, Clay Loam 1.5:1
Heavy Clay 1:1
Stiff Clay with Concrete 0.5 to 1:1
Lining
Lined Canals 1.5:1
 6.1.3 Estimation of Velocity in Channels
 The most prominent Equation used in the
design is the Manning formula described in
6.1.3. Values of Manning's n can be found in
standard texts (See Hudson's Field
Engineering).

 6.1.4 Design of Channels

 Design of open channels can be sub-divided
into 2:
 a) For Non-Erodible Channels (lined)
 b) Erodible Channels carrying clean water
 Design of Non-Erodible
Channels
When a channel conveying clear water is to be lined, or
the earth used for its construction is non-erodible in the
normal range of canal velocities, Manning's equation is
used. We are not interested about maximum velocity in
design. Manning's equation is:
 
1
Q  A R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2 .......(1)
` n
Q and S are basic requirements of canal determined from crop
water needs. The slope of the channels follows the natural
channel. Manning's n can also be got from Tables or estimated
using the Strickler equation: n = 0.038 d1/6 , d is the particle
size diameter (m)
 Design of Non-Erodible
Channels Contd.
 LHS of equation (1) can be calculated in terms of A
R2/3 termed section factor. For a trapezoidal
section:
 A = b d + Z d2 ; P = b + 2 d (1 + Z)1/2
 The value of Z is decided (see Table 6.1) and the
value of b is chosen based on the material for the
construction of the channel.
 The only unknown d is obtained by trial and error
to contain the design flow. Check flow velocity and
add freeboard.
 
 Example 6.1
Design a Non-Erodible Channel to convey 10
m3/s flow, the slope is 0.00015 and the mean
particle diameter of the soil is 5 mm. The side
slope is 2 : 1.
 Solution: Q = 1/n AR 2/3 S 1/2 ….. (1)
 With particle diameter, d being 5 mm, Using
Strickler Equation, n = 0.038 d 1/6
 =
0.038 x 0.005 1/6 = 0.016
 Solution of Example Contd.

1
Q A R 2 / 3 0.000151/ 2  0.77 A R 2 / 3
0.016
Z = 2. Choose a value of 1.5 m for 'b‘

For a trapezoidal channel, A = b d + Z d2 = 1.5 d + 2 d2

P = b + 2 d (Z2 + 1)1/2 = 1.5 + 2 d 51/2 = 1.5 + 4.5 d

Try different values of d to contain the design flow of 10 m3/s

 
 Soln of Example 6.1 Contd.

d(m) A(m2 ) P(m) R(m) R2/3 Q(m3/s) Comment

2.0 11.0 10.5 1.05 1.03 8.74 Small flow
2.5 16.25 12.75 1.27 1.18 14.71 Too big
2.2 12.98 11.40 1.14 1.09 10.90 slightly big
2.1 11.97 10.95 1.09 1.06 9.78 slightly small
2.13 12.27 11.09 1.11 1.07 10.11 O.K.
The design parameters are then d = 2.13 m and b = 1.5 m

Check Velocity : Velocity = Q/A = 10/12.27 = 0.81 m/s

Note: For earth channels, it is advisable that Velocity should be above 0.8 m/s
to inhibit weed growth but this may be impracticable for small channels.
Assuming freeboard of 0.2 d ie. 0.43 m, Final design parameters are:
D = 2.5 m and b = 1.51 m
 Final Design Diagram

T = 11.5 m

d = 2.13 m Z = 2:1 D = 2.5 m

b = 1.5 m

T = b + 2 Z d = 1.5 + 2 x2 x 2.5 = 11.5 m

 Design of Erodible Channels
Carrying Clean Water

 The problem here is to find the velocity at

which scour is initiated and to keep safely
below it. Different procedures and thresholds
are involved including maximum permissible
velocity and tractive force criteria.
 Maximum Permissible Velocities: The
maximum permissible velocities for different
earth materials can be found in text books
e.g. Hudson's Field Engineering, Table 8.2.
 Procedure For Design
 i) Determine the maximum permissible velocity from
tables.
 ii) With the permissible velocity equal to Q/A,
determine A.
 iii) With permissible velocity = 1/n S1/2 R2/3
 Slope, s and n are normally given.
 iv) R = A/P , so determine P as A/R
 v) Then A = b + Z d2 and
 P = b+ 2 d (Z2 + 1)1/2 ,
 Solve and obtain values of b and d
 Example 6.2:
From previous example, design the channel using the
maximum permissible velocity method.

Solution: Given: Q = 10 m3 /s , Slope = 0.00015 , n = 0.016

, Z = 2:1
i) From permissible velocity table, velocity = 0.75 m/s
ii) A = Q/V = 10/0.75 = 13.33 m
3/ 2 3/ 2
 Vn   0.75x0.016 
iii) `R   1/ 2  R  0.97
 0.00015 
1/ 2
S 
iv) P = A/R = 13.33/0.97 = 13.74 m
v) A = b d + Z d2 = b d + 2 d2
P = b + 2 d (Z2 + 1)1/2 = b + 2 d 51/2 = b + 4.5 d
ie. b d + 2 d2 = 13.33 m 2 ........(1)
b + 4.5 d = 13.74 m ........ (2)
 Solution of Equation 6.2 Contd.
From (2), b = 13.74 - 4.5 d .......(3)
Substitute (3) into (1), (13.74 - 4.5 d)d + 2 d2 = 13.33
13.74 d - 4.5 d2 + 2 d = 13.33
13.74 d - 2.5 d2 = 13.33
ie. 2.5 d2 - 13.74 d + 13.33 = 0
Recall the quadratic equation formula:
b  b 2  4 a c 13.74  7.44
x d  1016
. m and 126
. m
2a 5

d = 1.26 m is more practicable

From (3), b = 13.74 - (4.5 x 1.26) = 8.07 m
Adding 20% freeboard, Final Dimensions are depth = 1.5 m and
width = 8.07 m
 6.1.5 Classification of Canals
Based on Capacity:
 Canals can be classified as:
 (a)   Main Canal: It is the principal channel of a
canal system taking off from the headworks or a
reservoir or tail of a feeder.
 It is a large capacity channel and usually there is no
direct irrigation from it.
 Small capacity ditch distributaries running parallel to
the canal are taken off from the main canal to
irrigate adjoining areas.
 Main canals deliver supply to branch canal and main
distributaries.
 Canals Contd.
 (b)   Branch or Secondary Canal:
 Branch canals take their supply from the main
canal and convey to the distributaries.
 Very little direct irrigation is done from the
branch canals.
 Sub-branch is a canal, which takes off from
the branch canal but has capacity higher than
a distributary.
 Canals Contd.
 (c)   Major Distributary:
 It is a distributing channel, which may take off
from a main canal, branch canal or sub-
branch and has discharge capacity less than
that of a branch canal.
 It supplies water to another distributary.
Distributaries and minors take off from it.
Irrigation is done through outlets fixed along
it.
 Canals Contd.
 (d)   Distributary:
 It is a channel receiving supply from
branch canal or major distributary and
has discharge less than that of major
distributary.
 Minors take off from it, besides irrigation
is done from it through outlets.
 IRRIGATION STRUCTURES
 Structures are widely used in Irrigation, water
conservation, flood alleviation, river works where water
level and discharge regulation are required.
 These are hydraulic structures that are used to
regulate, measure, and/or transport water in open
channels.
 These structures are called control structures when
there is a fixed relationship between the water surface
elevation upstream or downstream of the structure and
the flow rate through the structure.
 Hydraulic structures can be grouped into three
categories:
IRRIGATION STRUCTURES
 Hydraulic Structures Contd.
 (i)  Flow measuring structures, such as weirs

 (ii) Regulation structures such as gates and

 (iii) Discharge structures such as culverts.

 Weirs
 Weirs: Weirs are elevated structures in open
channels that are used to measure flow
and/or control outflow elevations from basins
and channels.
 There are two types of weirs in common use:
 Sharp-crested weirs and the broad-crested
weirs.
 The sharp-crested weirs are commonly used
in irrigation practice
 Sharp-Crested Weirs
 Sharp-crested or thin plate, weirs consist of a plastic
or metal plate that is set vertically across the width
of the channel.
 The main types of sharp-crested weirs are
rectangular, V-notches and the Cipolletti or the
Trapezoidal weirs.
 The amount of discharge flowing through the
opening is non-linearly related to the width of the
opening and the depth of the water level in the
approach section above the height of the weir crest.

 Sharp Crested Weirs Contd.
 Weirs can be classified as being contracted or
suppressed depending on whether or not the nappe is
constrained by the edges of the channel.
 If the nappe is open to the atmosphere at the edges, it
is said to be contracted because the flow contracts as
it passes through the flow section and the width of the
nappe is slightly less than the width of the weir crest
(see figure).
 If the sides of the channel are also the sides of the
weir opening, the streamlines of flow are parallel to the
walls of the channel and there is no contraction of flow.
Figure 6.2: Rectangular Weirs

(a) Suppressed (b) Unsuppressed Weir

(Contracted)
 Sharp Crested Weirs Contd.
 In this case, the weir is said to be
suppressed. Some type of air vent
must be installed in a suppressed weir
so air at atmospheric pressure is free to
circulate beneath the nappe. (See
Figure 6.2 for suppressed and
unsuppressed weirs).
 Sharp Crested Weirs Contd.
The discharge, Q (m3/s) over a rectangular suppressed weir
can be derived as:
2
Q  Cd 2 g b H 1.5 .................................(1)
3
Where: Cd is the discharge coefficient, b is the width of the weir crest, m (see
Figure 6.2 above) and H is the head of water (m) above weir crest.
According to Rouse (1946) and Blevins( 1984),
H ………………..(2)
C  0.611  0.075
d
Hw

Where: Hw is the height of the crest of the weir above the bottom of the
channel.
 Weirs Contd

This equation is valid when H/Hw <5, and is approximated up to

H/Hw = 10. If H/Hw < 0.4, Cd can be approximated as 0. 62 and
equation (1) reduces to:
Q = 1.83 b H1.5 ………. (3)
This equation is normally used to compute flow over a rectangular suppressed
weir over the usual operating range. It is recommended that the upstream
head, H be measured between 4H and 5H upstream of the weir.
For the unsuppressed (contracted) weir, the air beneath the nappe is in
contact with the atmosphere and venting is not necessary. The effect of side
contractions is to reduce the effective width of the nappe by 0.1 H and that flow
rate over the weir, Q is estimated as:
Q = 1.83 (b – 0.2 H) H1.5 ………………… (4)
This equation is acceptable as long as b is longer than 3 H
 Cipoletti Weir
 A type of contracted weir which is
related to the rectangular sharp-crested
weir is the Cipoletti weir (see Figure 6.3
below) which has a trapezoidal cross-
section with side slopes 1:4 (H:V). The
advantage of a Cipolletti weir is that
corrections for end contractions are not
necessary.
 Cipolletti Weir Contd.
The discharge formula can be written as:
 
Q = 1.859 b H1.5 …………….. (5)
 
Where: b is the bottom width of the Cipolletti weir. The
minimum head on standard rectangular and Cipolletti weirs is 6
mm and at heads less than 6 mm, the nappe does not spring free
of the crest.
 

 
 
Figure 6.3: A Trapezoidal of Cipolletti Weir
 Example 6.3
 A weir is be installed to measure flows
in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 m3/s. If the
maximum depth of water that can be
accommodated at the weir is 1 m and
the width of the channel is 4 m,
determine the height of a suppressed
weir that should be used to measure the
flow rate.
 Solution to Example 6.3
The flow over the weir is shown in the Figure 6.4 below. The height of water is
Hw and the flow rate is Q. The height of water over the crest of the weir, H is
given by:

H = 1 – Hw

Assuming that H/Hw , 0.4, then Q is related to H by equation (3), where:

 
Q = 1.83 b H 1.5

Figure 6.4: Weir Flow

 Solution to Example 6.3
Concluded
Taking b = 4 m, Q = 1m3/s (the maximum flow rate will give the
maximum head, H), then:
1 / 1. 5 0.67
 Q   1 
  H      0.265m
1.83b  1.83 4

The height of the weir, Hw is therefore given by:

Hw = 1 – 0.265 = 0.735 m
 
And H/Hw = 0.265/0.735 = 0.36
  The initial assumption that H/Hw < 0.4 is therefore validated, and
 V-Notch Weir

A V-notch weir is a sharp-crested weir that has a V-shaped

opening instead of a rectangular-shaped opening. These weirs,
also called triangular weirs, are typically used instead of
rectangular weirs under low-flow conditions ( mainly < 0.28 m3/s),
where rectangular weirs tend to be less accurate. It can be
derived that the flow rate, Q over the weir is given by:
  8  2 .5
Q Cd 2 g tan ( ) H
  15 2
V-Notch Weirs Contd.
 Parshall Flume
 Although weirs are the simplest structures for measuring
the discharge in open channels, the high head losses
caused by weirs and the tendency for suspended particles
to accumulate behind weirs may be important limitations.
 The Parshall flume provides an alternative to the weir for
measuring flow rates in open channels where high head
losses and sediment accumulation are of concern.
 Such cases include flow measurement in irrigation
channels.
 The Parshall flume (see Figures 6.7 and 6.8 below)
consists of a converging section that causes critical flow
conditions, followed by a steep throat section that provides
for a transition to supercritical flow.
Parshall Flume
Parshall Flumes
 Parshall Flume Contd.
 The unique relationship between the depth of
flow and the flow rate under critical flow
conditions is the basic principle on which the
Parshall flume operates.
 The transition from supercritical flow to
subcritical flow at the exit of the flume usually
occurs via a hydraulic jump, but under high
tail water conditions the jump is sometimes
submerged.
 Parshall Flume Contd
 Within the flume structure, water depths are measured
at two locations, one in the converging section, H a and
the other at the throat section, H b. The flow depth in the
throat section is measured relative to the bottom of the
converging section as illustrated in the figure below.
 If the hydraulic jump at the exit of the Parshall flume is
not submerged, then the discharge through the flume is
related to the measured flow depth in the converging
section, Ha by the empirical discharge relations given in
Table 6.2, where Q is the discharge in ft 3/s, W is the
width of the throat in ft, and Ha is measured in ft.
 Parshall Flume Contd
 Submergence of the hydraulic jump is determined by the
ratio of the flow depth in the throat, Hb, to the flow depth in
the converging section, Ha, and critical values for the Hb/Ha
are given in Table 6.3.
 Whenever, the ratio exceeds the critical values in the
table, the hydraulic jump is submerged and the discharge
is reduced from the values given by the equations in Table
6.2.
 Corrections to the theoretical flow rates as a function of Ha
and the percentage of submergence, Hb/Ha are given in
the Figures 6.8 and 6.9 below for throat widths of 1 ft and
10 ft.
Parshall Flumes Contd.
 Parshall Flumes Contd.
 Flow corrections for the 1 ft flume are applied to
larger flumes by multiplying the correction for the 1 ft
flume by a factor corresponding to the flume size
given in Table 6.4.
 Similarly, flow corrections for flume sizes greater than
10 ft. are applied to larger flumes by multiplying the
correction for the 10 ft flume by a factor
corresponding to the flume size given in Table 6.5.
 Parshall flumes do not reliably measure flow rates
when the submergence ratio, Hb/Ha exceeds 0.95.
Parshall Flume Correction
Tables For Parshall Flume
Correction
 Example 6.4
 Example 6.4: Flow is being measured
by a Parshall flume that has a throat
width of 2 ft. Determine the flow rate
through the flume when the water depth
in the converging section is 2.00 ft and
the depth in the throat section is 1.70ft.
19.8 ft3/s
Solution to Example 6.4
From the given data: W = 2 ft, Ha = 2 ft, and Hb = 1.7 ft.
According to Table 6.2, Q is given by:
1.522 W 0 . 226 1.522 x 2 0 . 026
Q  4 W Ha  4 ( 2) ( 2)  23.4 ft 3 / s

In this case: Hb/Ha = 1.7/2 = 0.85

Therefore, according to Table 6.3, the flow is submerged. Figure
6.8 gives the flow rate correction for a 1 ft flume as 2ft 3/s, and
Table 6.4 gives the correction factor for a 2 ft flume as 1.8. The
flow rate correction, dQ for a 2 ft flume is therefore given by:
DQ = 2 x 1.8 = 3.6 ft3/s
And the flow rate through the Parshall flume is Q – dQ, where
Q – dQ = 23.4 – 3.6
 Gates
 Gates are used to regulate the flow in open
channels.
 They are designed for either over-flow or
underflow operation, with overflow operation
appropriate for channels in which there is a
significant amount of floating debris.
 The common types of gates are vertical and
radial (Tainter) gates, which are illustrated below.
 Vertical gates are supported by vertical guides with roller
wheels, and large hydrostatic forces usually induce
significant frictional resistance to raise and lower the gate
Diagrams of Gates
 Gates Contd.

Flow, Q through a gate could be established to be:

Q  Cd b y g 2 g y1
Where: Cd is given as:
Cc
Cd 
y
1  Cc g
y1

Cc = Cc = coefficient of contraction, = y2/yg = 0.61 for most vertical ga

`
For For Tainter gates, Cc is generally greater than 0.61 and is
commonly expressed as a function of the angle  (degrees)
 Gates Concluded
It can be expressed as:
2
   
C c  1  0.75   0.36 
 90   90 

This equation applies as long as the angle is least than

900. All the equations apply where there is free flow
through the gates. See texts for situations where the
flows through the gates are submerged.
 Drop Structures:
 Drop structures, typically constructed out of concrete,
can accommodate a sudden change in elevation of
the channel bottom while maintaining control of the
flow.
 Drop structures are used in channels, which must be laid
along relatively steep gradients to allow for dissipation of
energy without causing scour in the channel itself.
 In such applications, the drop structure allows the main
channel to be laid on subcritical slope while the excess
potential energy of the flow due to the steep topography
is absorbed in the drop structure. See Figure 6.12 of a
drop structure below
Diagram of Drop Structure
 Example 6.5
 An irrigation channel with a design discharge of
2.265 m3/s is to be laid along a terrain having an
average slope of 0.005 m/m. To maintain
subcritical flow in the channel section, the
bottom of the channel must be limited to 0.001
m/m. The extra fall is to be absorbed by drop
structures such as the one shown above in the
diagram having a width of 3.048 m. Compute
the number of structures required in a 16.09 km
length of line if the drop height (dZ) is equal to
1.829 m.
 Solution of Example 6.5
 Solution: The total drop to be absorbed by
structures, ZT = (St - Sc) L
 Where St is the terrain slope, L is total
distance, and Sc is the slope of the channel.
 ZT = ( 0.005 m/m - 0.001 m/m ) 16.09 km =
64.36
 The number of drop structures required,
 N = ZT/dZ = 64.36/1.829 = 36 Structures.