Geotechnical Engineering

 is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering

behaviour of earth materials. Geotechnical engineering is important
in civil engineering, but also has applications in military, mining, 
petroleum and other engineering disciplines that are concerned with
construction occurring on the surface or within the ground.

Geotechnical engineering uses principles of soil mechanics and

rock mechanics to investigate subsurface conditions and materials;
determine the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties
of these materials; evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made
soil deposits; assess risks posed by site conditions; design 
earthworks and structure foundations; and monitor site conditions,
earthwork and foundation construction.

 
A typical geotechnical engineering project begins
with a review of project needs to define the required
material properties. Then follows a site investigation
of soil, rock, fault distribution and bedrock
 properties on and below an area of interest to
determine their engineering properties including how
they will interact with, on or in a proposed 
construction. Site investigations are needed to gain
an understanding of the area in or on which the
engineering will take place. Investigations can
include the assessment of the risk to humans,
property and the environment from natural hazards
such as earthquakes, landslides, sinkholes, 
soil liquefaction, debris flows and rockfalls.
A geotechnical engineering then determines and designs the type of
foundations, earthworks, and/or pavement subgrades required for the
intended man-made structures to be built. Foundations are designed
and constructed for structures of various sizes such as high-rise
buildings, bridges, medium to large commercial buildings, and smaller
structures where the soil conditions do not allow code-based design.

Foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow and

deep foundations. Retaining structures include earth-filled dams and
retaining walls. Earthworks include embankments, tunnels, 
dikes and levees, channels, reservoirs, deposition of hazardous waste
 and sanitary landfills.

Geotechnical engineering is also related to coastal and 

ocean engineering. Coastal engineering can involve the design and
construction of wharves, marinas, and jetties. Ocean engineering can
involve foundation and anchor systems for offshore structures such as 
oil platforms.
In geotechnical engineering, soils are considered a
three-phase material composed of: rock or mineral
 particles, water and air. The voids of a soil, the
spaces in between mineral particles, contain the water
and air.

The engineering properties of soils are affected by

four main factors: the predominant size of the
mineral particles, the type of mineral particles, the
grain size distribution, and the relative quantities of
mineral, water and air present in the soil matrix. Fine
particles (fines) are defined as particles less than
0.075 mm in diameter.
 
The Geotechnical Engineering Section
consists of three units:
a. Geology-Aggregate unit
b. Foundations
c. Grading & Base.
Typical Geotechnical Section activities include:
 
1. Subsurface investigations
2. Laboratory testing of soil and rock
3. Foundation design
4. Soil and rock slope engineering
5. Aggregate resource evaluation
6. Aggregate source database management
7. Groundwater investigations
8. Subsurface drainage design/recommendations
9. Retaining wall design
10. Vibration monitoring
11. Geosynthetic applications
12 Geotechnical support to Districts
13. Project scoping
14. New technology implementation
15. Site monitoring and instrumentation
16. Construction review and assistance
17. Technical Certification
Purpose, Scope, Responsibility
Geotechnical investigations are an essential component of a successful
geotechnical engineering analysis and foundation recommendation
report. These investigations allow geotechnical engineers and
geologists to characterize subsurface conditions and make engineering
judgments about how the earth will behave when subjected to structure
and embankment loads associated with highway construction.
Subsurface investigations include methods such as foundation drilling
and in situ test methods.

-The subsurface soils and rock are investigated to determine properties

including:
a. Soil/rock stratigraphy/classification
b. Soil/rock strength parameters
c. Soil/rock stiffness parameters
d. Groundwater conditions
Geotechnical Engineering Section is charged
with providing subsurface investigations for
transportation related structures including:

Bridges
Retaining Walls
Large Culverts
Roadway Embankments
Buildings
Communication and Light Towers
Miscellaneous Structures
Soil properties

Some of the important properties of soils that are used by

geotechnical engineers to analyze site conditions and design
earthworks, retaining structures, and foundations are:

Specific weight or Unit Weight

Cumulative weight of the solid particles, water and air of the unit
volume of soil. Note that the air phase is often assumed to be
weightless.
 
Porosity
Ratio of the volume of voids (containing air, water, or other
fluids) in a soil to the total volume of the soil. Porosity is
mathematically related to void ratio the by[9]
here e is void ratio and n is porosity
Void ratio
The ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solid particles in a soil mass. Void ratio
is mathematically related to the porosity by[9]
 
Permeability
A measure of the ability of water to flow through the soil. It is expressed in units of
velocity.[10]
 
Compressibility
The rate of change of volume with effective stress. If the pores are filled with water, then
the water must be squeezed out of the pores to allow volumetric compression of the soil;
this process is called consolidation.
 
Shear strength
The maximum shear stress that can be applied in a soil mass without causing shear failure.
[11]

 
Atterberg Limits
Liquid limit, Plastic limit, and Shrinkage limit. These indices are used for estimation of
other engineering properties and for soil classification
 
Subsurface exploration usually involves in-situ testing (two common
examples of in-situ tests are the standard penetration test and 
cone penetration test). In addition site investigation will often include
subsurface sampling and laboratory testing of the soil samples
retrieved. The digging of test pits and trenching (particularly for
locating faults and slide planes) may also be used to learn about soil
conditions at depth. Large diameter borings are rarely used due to
safety concerns and expense, but are sometimes used to allow a
geologist or engineer to be lowered into the borehole for direct visual
and manual examination of the soil and rock stratigraphy.
 
A variety of soil samplers exist to meet the needs of different
engineering projects. The standard penetration test (SPT), which uses a
thick-walled split spoon sampler, is the most common way to collect
disturbed samples. Piston samplers, employing a thin-walled tube, are
most commonly used for the collection of less disturbed samples.
More advanced methods, such as ground freezing and the Sherbrooke
block sampler, are superior, but even more expensive.
Surface exploration can include geologic mapping, 
geophysical methods, and photogrammetry; or it can be
as simple as an engineer walking around to observe the
physical conditions at the site. Geologic mapping and
interpretation of geomorphology is typically completed
in consultation with a geologist or 
engineering geologist.
 
Geophysical exploration is also sometimes used.
Geophysical techniques used for subsurface exploration
include measurement of seismic waves (pressure, shear,
and Rayleigh waves), surface-wave methods and/or
downhole methods, and electromagnetic surveys
(magnetometer, resistivity, and 
ground-penetrating radar).
 Surface investigations generally consist of in situ soil and
rock measurements such as those conducted on bedrock
outcrops, geophysical testing, quarry studies, and test pits.
These types of investigations may also include a site visit to
take photographs and determine potential issues. Laboratory
testing is conducted on samples from both surface and
subsurface investigations of both soil and rock.

 An accurate and comprehensive geotechnical investigation

is a key component to any geotechnical project. While most
may think of subsurface investigations as consisting of
fieldwork, there are many tasks that should be completed in
the office prior to any fieldwork being started to aid in the
overall investigation. Office tasks include researching
historical data, reviewing available subsurface information
and site data and planning the subsurface investigation.
All subsurface investigations should begin with a collection of existing data
for the project. This may include any number of the following items:
 Geologic Maps -geologic maps should be consulted prior to a subsurface
investigation to provide a reasonable idea of the site geology that may be
encountered such as the rock formation and bedrock depth.
 
 Aerial Photos -conduct a site visit to assess general conditions and site
layout. When conditions limit the possibility of a site visit, Google Earth,
or any similar photo mapping system. The Video Log is a collection of
videos shot by the Pavement Management Unit for roadway condition
analyses and is a great resource for preliminary scoping of a project. The
video is shot by a specially equipped van using several cameras, three of
which give a straight on and left and right view. This video log can be a
great resource for doing a preliminary scoping of a project. Other resources
such as Google Earth and provide valuable information about the project
location.
 
 Well Records
 Existing Borings-outlines the minimum number of borings and/or other in situ tests
required per structure type. Increase the number of borings/in situ tests required as needed
based on field observation and other design considerations. Locate and space borings as
topography, site conditions, soil conditions and design factors dictate. However, do not
locate borings further than 30 ft. from the proposed structure location

-Prepare a boring plan for the field crews as a final step in the subsurface investigation
planning process. A complete, detailed, boring plan will help the field crews do their job more
efficiently. Include a plan view to scale of the investigation area that shows the following
items:
1. Existing topography, utilities, and contours
2.Existing Right-of-Way lines
3.Proposed Alignments
.4.Proposed Structures
.5.Proposed Boreholes, CPT Soundings, other In-situ tests with symbols, labels and county
coordinates
6.State Project Number
7.Charge Identifier (CID; used for timesheet and expense purposes) North Arrow
8. Street and highway labels
9.Site Plan (reference to nearest city)
Historical Bridge Plans with Plotted Borings
Pre-Design plans, profiles and cross sections
Historical Geotechnical Reports
Preliminary Bridge Plans and Bridge Surveys
Property Ownership Information
Utility location information
Contour Maps
 
Hydraulics Report -Hydraulics Report is generated by The
Bridge Office for all bridges and large culverts crossing
waterways. This report will give estimates for channel and
local (pier) scour needed for pile analysis. If there is a large
scour prediction, the engineer should plan to drill deeper
holes to account for the loss of overburden
Foundations

A building's foundation transmits loads from buildings and other

structures to the earth. Geotechnical engineers design foundations
based on the load characteristics of the structure and the
properties of the soils and/or bedrock at the site. In general,
geotechnical engineers: 
Estimate the magnitude and location of the loads to be supported.
Develop an investigation plan to explore the subsurface.
Determine necessary soil parameters through field and lab testing
(e.g., consolidation test, triaxial shear test, vane shear test, 
standard penetration test).
Design the foundation in the safest and most economical manner.
 
.
 
The primary considerations for foundation support are 
bearing capacity, settlement, and ground movement beneath the
foundations.
 
Bearing capacity is the ability of the site soils to support the loads
imposed by buildings or structures. Settlement occurs under all
foundations in all soil conditions, though lightly loaded structures
or rock sites may experience negligible settlements. For heavier
structures or softer sites, both overall settlement relative to unbuilt
areas or neighboring buildings, and differential settlement under a
single structure, can be concerns. Of particular concern is
settlement which occurs over time, as immediate settlement can
usually be compensated for during construction. Ground movement
beneath a structure's foundations can occur due to shrinkage or
swell of expansive soils due to climatic changes, frost expansion of
soil, melting of permafrost, slope instability, or other causes. All
these factors must be considered during design of foundations.
Shallow foundations
Shallow foundations are a type of foundation that transfers building
load to the very near the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer.
Shallow foundations typically have a depth to width ratio of less
than 1.
 
Footings
Footings (often called "spread footings" because they spread the
load) are structural elements which transfer structure loads to the
ground by direct areal contact. Footings can be isolated footings for
point or column loads, or strip footings for wall or other long (line)
loads. Footings are normally constructed from reinforced concrete
 cast directly onto the soil, and are typically embedded into the
ground to penetrate through the zone of frost movement and/or to
obtain additional bearing capacity.

 
Slab foundations
A variant on spread footings is to have the entire structure bear
on a single slab of concrete underlying the entire area of the
structure. Slabs must be thick enough to provide sufficient
rigidity to spread the bearing loads somewhat uniformly, and
to minimize differential settlement across the foundation. In
some cases, flexure is allowed and the building is constructed
to tolerate small movements of the foundation instead. For
small structures, like single-family houses, the slab may be
less than 300 mm thick; for larger structures, the foundation
slab may be several meters thick.

Slab foundations can be either slab-on-grade foundations or

embedded foundations, typically in buildings with basements.
Slab-on-grade foundations must be designed to allow for
potential ground movement due to changing soil conditions.
Deep foundations
Deep foundations are used for structures or heavy loads when shallow
foundations cannot provide adequate capacity, due to size and structural
limitations. They may also be used to transfer building loads past weak
or compressible soil layers. While shallow foundations rely solely on the
bearing capacity of the soil beneath them, deep foundations can rely on
end bearing resistance, frictional resistance along their length, or both in
developing the required capacity. Geotechnical engineers use specialized
tools, such as the cone penetration test, to estimate the amount of skin
and end bearing resistance available in the subsurface.
 
There are many types of deep foundations including piles, drilled
shafts, caissons, piers, and earth stabilized columns. Large buildings
such as skyscrapers typically require deep foundations. For example,
the Jin Mao Tower in China uses tubular steel piles about 1m (3.3 feet)
driven to a depth of 83.5m (274 feet) to support its weight.
 
 
 
In buildings that are constructed and found
to undergo settlement, underpinning piles
can be used to stabilise the existing building.

There are three ways to place piles for a deep

foundation. They can be driven, drilled, or
installed by use of an auger. Driven piles are
extended to their necessary depths with the
application of external energy in the same
way a nail is hammered.
 
There are four typical hammers used to drive such piles: drop
hammers, diesel hammers, hydraulic hammers, and air hammers.
Drop hammers simply drop a heavy weight onto the pile to drive
it, while diesel hammers use a single cylinder diesel engine to
force piles through the Earth.
 
Similarly, hydraulic and air hammers supply energy to piles
through hydraulic and air forces. Energy imparted from a hammer
head varies with type of hammer chosen, and can be as high as a
million foot pounds for large scale diesel hammers, a very
common hammer head used in practice. Piles are made of a
variety of material including steel, timber, and concrete. Drilled
piles are created by first drilling a hole to the appropriate depth,
and filling it with concrete. Drilled piles can typically carry more
load than driven piles, simply due to a larger diameter pile. The
auger method of pile installation is similar to drilled pile
installation, but concrete is pumped into the hole as the auger is
being removed.
Lateral earth support structures
A retaining wall is a structure that holds back earth. Retaining walls
stabilize soil and rock from downslope movement or erosion and
provide support for vertical or near-vertical grade changes.
Cofferdams and bulkheads, structures to hold back water, are
sometimes also considered retaining walls.

The primary geotechnical concern in design and installation of

retaining walls is that the weight of the retained material is creates 
lateral earth pressure behind the wall, which can cause the wall to
deform or fail. The lateral earth pressure depends on the height of the
wall, the density of the soil,the strength of the soil, and the amount of
allowable movement of the wall. This pressure is smallest at the top
and increases toward the bottom in a manner similar to hydraulic
pressure, and tends to push the wall away from the backfill. 
Groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated by a drainage
system causes an additional horizontal hydraulic pressure on the wall.
Gravity walls
Gravity walls depend on the size and weight of the wall mass to
resist pressures from behind. Gravity walls will often have a
slight setback, or batter, to improve wall stability. For short,
landscaping walls, gravity walls made from dry-stacked
(mortarless) stone or segmental concrete units (masonry units)
are commonly used.

Earlier in the 20th century, taller retaining walls were often

gravity walls made from large masses of concrete or stone.
Today, taller retaining walls are increasingly built as composite
gravity walls such as: geosynthetic or steel-reinforced backfill
soil with precast facing; gabions (stacked steel wire baskets filled
with rocks), crib walls (cells built up log cabin style from precast
concrete or timber and filled with soil or free draining gravel) or
soil-nailed walls (soil reinforced in place with steel and concrete
rods).
Cantilever walls
Prior to the introduction of modern reinforced-soil gravity walls, cantilevered
walls were the most common type of taller retaining wall. Cantilevered walls
are made from a relatively thin stem of steel-reinforced, cast-in-place
concrete or mortared masonry (often in the shape of an inverted T). These
walls cantilever loads (like a beam) to a large, structural footing; converting
horizontal pressures from behind the wall to vertical pressures on the ground
below. Sometimes cantilevered walls are buttressed on the front, or include a
counterfort on the back, to improve their stability against high loads.
Buttresses are short wing walls at right angles to the main trend of the wall.
These walls require rigid concrete footings below seasonal frost depth. This
type of wall uses much less material than a traditional gravity wall.

Cantileverwalls resist lateral pressures by friction at the base of the wall

and/or passive earth pressure, the tendency of the soil to resist lateral
movement.

Basements are a form of cantilever walls, but the forces on the basement
walls are greater than on conventional walls because the basement wall is not
free to move.
Excavation shoring
Shoring of temporary excavations frequently requires
a wall design which does not extend laterally beyond
the wall, so shoring extends below the planned base
of the excavation. Common methods of shoring are
the use of sheet piles or soldier beams and lagging.
Sheet piles are a form of driven piling using thin
interlocking sheets of steel to obtain a continuous
barrier in the ground, and are driven prior to
excavation. Soldier beams are constructed of wide
flange steel H sections spaced about 2–3 m apart,
driven prior to excavation. As the excavation
proceeds, horizontal timber or steel sheeting (lagging)
is inserted behind the H pile flanges.
 Earthworks
a. Excavation
 Excavation is the process of training earth according to requirement by removing the
soil from the site.
b. Filling
 Filling is the process of training earth according to requirement by placing the soil on
the site.
c. Compaction
Compaction is the process by which the density of soil is increased and permeability of
soil is decreased. Fill placement work often has specifications requiring a specific degree
of compaction, or alternatively, specific properties of the compacted soil. In-situ soils
can be compacted by rolling, deep dynamic compaction, vibration, blasting, gyrating,
kneading, compaction grouting etc.
d. Ground Improvement
 Ground Improvement is a technique that improves the engineering properties of the
treated soil mass. Usually, the properties modified are shear strength, stiffness and
permeability. Ground improvement has developed into a sophisticated tool to support
foundations for a wide variety of structures. Properly applied, i.e. after giving due
consideration to the nature of the ground being improved and the type and sensitivity
of the structures being built, ground improvement often reduces direct costs and
saves time
Slope stabilization
 
Slope stability is the potential of soil covered slopes to withstand and undergo 
movement. Stability is determined by the balance ofshear stress and 
shear strength. A previously stable slope may be initially affected by preparatory
factors, making the slope conditionally unstable. Triggering factors of a 
slope failure can be climatic events can then make a slope actively unstable,
leading to mass movements. Mass movements can be caused by increases in
shear stress, such as loading, lateral pressure, and transient forces. Alternatively,
shear strength may be decreased by weathering, changes in pore water pressure,
and organic material.

Several modes of failure for earth slopes include falls, topples, slides, and flows.
In slopes with coarse grained soil or rocks, falls typically occur as the rapid
descent of rocks and other loose slope material. A slope topples when a large
column of soil tilts over its vertical axis at failure. Typical slope stability
analysis considers sliding failures, categorized mainly as rotational slides or
translational slides. As implied by the name, rotational slides fail along a
generally curved surface, while translational slides fail along a more planar
surface. A slope failing as a flow would resemble a fluid flowing downhill.
 Offshore geotechnical engineering

 Offshore (or marine) geotechnical engineering is concerned with

foundation design for human-made structures in the sea, away from the
coastline (in opposition to onshore or nearshore)Oil platforms, 
artificial islands and submarine pipelines are examples of such structures.
There are number of significant differences between onshore and offshore
geotechnical engineering.[15][16] Notably, ground improvement (on the
seabed) and site investigation are more expensive, the offshore structures
are exposed to a wider range of geohazards, and the environmental and
financial consequences are higher in case of failure. Offshore structures are
exposed to various environmental loads, notably wind, waves and currents.
These phenomena may affect the integrity or the serviceability of the
structure and its foundation during its operational lifespan – they need to be
taken into account in offshore design.
 In subsea geotechnical engineering, seabed materials are considered a two-
phase material composed of 1) rock or mineral particles and 2)
water] Structures may be fixed in place in the seabed—as is the case for 
piers, jettys and fixed-bottom wind turbines—or may be a floating structure
that remain roughly fixed relative to its geotechnical anchor point.
Undersea mooring of human-engineered floating structures include a large
number of offshore oil and gas platforms and, since 2008, a few 
floating wind turbines. Two common types of engineered design for
anchoring floating structures include tension-leg and catenary 
loose mooring systems. "Tension leg mooring systems have vertical tethers
under tension providing large restoring moments in pitch and roll. Catenary
 mooring systems provide station keeping for an offshore structure yet
provide little stiffness at low tensions.