Curriculum Development

Part I – Content Update

Curriculum: Concepts, Nature and Purposes
I. Fundamental Concepts in Curriculum
- Curriculum as a cumulative tradition of
organized knowledge
- Curriculum as an experience
- Curriculum as an instructional plan
- Curriculum as n instructional outcome
Levels of Curriculum
1. Societal Level of Curriculum – the
farthest from the learner since this is
where the public stakeholders (politician,
special interest groups, administrators,
professional specialist participate in
identifying the goals, the topics to be
studied, time to be spent in teaching/
learning, and materials to aid instruction.
2. Institutional level curriculum –
refers to the curriculum derived from
the societal level, with modification
by local educators or lay people;
often organized according to subjects
and include topics and themes to be
studied; may also include standards,
philosophies, lesson plans and
teaching guides.
3. Experiential level curriculum – the curriculum
perceived and experienced by each student
and may, therefore, vary among learners
because of individual differences.
4. Includes both curriculum process –
(procedures in creating using and evaluating
the curricula) and curriculum product or
projects, resulting from curriculum
development processes; includes curriculum
guides, courses of study; syllabi, resource units
and other document that deal with content of
schooling.
II. Foundations of Curriculum

A. Psychological Foundation – Psychology is a

unifying element of the learning process. It
forms the basis for the methods, materials
and activities for learning and subsequently
serves as basis for many curriculum decisions.
 Major Theories of Learning

Cognitive
Behaviorism Phenomenology
Development

Edward Thorndike Jean Piaget Abraham Maslows

Ivan Pavlov John Dewey Carl Roger
BF Skinner Jerome Bruner Louis Raths
Behaviorism and Curriculum
- Curriculum should be organized so students
experience success is mastering the subject
matter
- Highly prescriptive and diagnostic in approach
- Rely on step-by-step procedure, structured
methods of learning
- For students who have difficulty learning,
curriculum and instruction can be broken down
into small units with appropriate sequencing of
tasks and reinforcement of desired behavior.
Cognition and Curriculum
- The cognitive approach constitutes a
logical method for organizing and
interpreting learning
- The approach is rooted in the tradition of
subject matter
- Educators have been trained in cognitive
approaches and they have better
understanding of them
Phenomenology and Curriculum
- Phenomenologist view the individual in
relation to the field of which she or he
operates
- Different things to different people
- Phenomenologist attempt to rescue learning
theory from narrow and rigid behaviorists and
from overstress on cognitive process
- The raw data of personal experiences are vital
to understand learning.
 Different Views of Curriculum

Traditional Progressive
Focus 1 – Intellectual Development Focus 1 – Intellectual Development
-Certain subjects train the mind -All subjects contribute to intellectual
-Liberal arts and science build development
intellectual power -Liberal arts, sciences and practical
-Ready made experiences by written arts develop the whole individual
and spoken words -Acting, acquiring meaning and
-Education conceived as instruction problem solving
-Education conceive as creative self-
learning

Focus 2 – Functioning Citizen Focus 2 – Functioning citizen

-Intellectual development makes for -Development of good moral and
good citizenship useful skills
-Knowledge and discipline prepare -Direct experience in democratic
pupil to exercise freedom living
 Traditional Progressive
Focus 3 – Learners as individuals in our Focus 3 – Learners as individuals in our
Society Society
-Follow traditional modes of learning -Develop own learning modes within
with prepared curriculum flexible curriculum
-Homogenous grouping and special -Segregation of learner as undemocratic
grouping -Educated to non conformity
-Educated rigorously to accept roles in
society

Focus 4 – Learners as actual/potential Focus 4 – Learners as actual/potential

workers workers
- Vocational education follows liberal - Vocational and liberal education hand
arts in hand

Focus 5 – Characteristics of curriculum Focus 5 – Characteristics of curriculum –

-Fixed absolute relative
-Subject matter as important and taught - Subject as important for immediate
for future use use
Philosophy Curriculum
Idealism -Upholds goodness and truths
-Religious and values oriented

Realism -Concerned with world of ideas and

things fixed within established subject
matter
-Theory and principles before
application
-Includes only the essentials
-Emphasized reality of things
Pragmatism -Emphasis on how to think rather than
what to think
-Emphasis on development of insights,
understanding and skills acquired in
creative, reflective, critical thinking
-Child centered
-Utilitarian, subject matter taught
naturally
-Subject matter for stimulating
exploration and practical action
Philosophy Curriculum
Existentialism -Main concern is to free the child to do
his own thing
-Frees learners to choose what to learn
and believe
-No course guides and content outlines
-Learners sets own identities and
standards
Perennialism -fixed, because the “ends” of education
are absolute and universal
-Liberal arts and science drawn from
human wisdom and classical sources
-Taught subject in customary, separate
from rather than combined
-Eliminate “extras” and “frills” (music)
Essentialism -Essential skills 3r’s (English, Science,
History, Math & Foreign Language)
-Educate the competent person
Philosophy Curriculum

Progressivism -Based on student’s interest

-Involves the application of human
problems and affairs
-Interdisciplinary subject matter,
activities and projects
Reconstructionism -Put curriculum as a means in remaking
society and rebuilding culture
-Curriculum should be a catalyst of
change
-Aims to lead pupils to rational
discussions and contract analysis of
issues
C. Socio-Cultural
- Curriculum discussion should consider
the social setting especially the
relationship between the schools and
society and its influence on curriculum
dimensions. Social astuteness is essential
for curriculum planners and developers
today. Curriculum decision takes place in
a complex social setting through
demands that are imposed by society
and that filter down to schools.
Influence of Society and Culture
a. Inhibit change through traditions
b. Rate and direction of change
c. Correspond to societal changes
d. Apply pressure through societal demand

Societal Changes
e. Science and technology
f. Improved communication
g. Change family roles
h. Population explosions
i. Social mobility
f. Value crisis
g. Subject matter related to events
h. facilities/materials product of technology
i. Active participation of stakeholders
j. Accountability

D. Historical Foundations
- The historical foundations of curriculum reflects
the educational focus prevalent during a
particular period or event in Philippine history.
This focus could be made basis or model for
curriculum development of recent years.
III. Types and Patterns of Curriculum
A. Subject-Centered Curriculum
- The subject centered curriculum designs are the
most popular and widely used curriculum
designs. Knowledge and content are integral
parts of the curriculum. Teacher has full control
of the curriculum.
1. Separate Subjects Design
Strengths:
- The oldest and best know curriculum design
- Based on the concept of knowledge
- Is organized by the disciplines on
scholarly fields of specialized inquiry
- Emphasis on verbal activity, the teacher
having eh active role
- Easy to deliver because complementary
materials are readily available
- Corresponds to textbook treatment and
how teachers are trained as subject
specialist.
Limitations
- Isolates and compartmentalizes knowledge
- Overemphasis on subject matter resulted in a
curriculum that is too technical and too
specialized
- Inappropriate for a large number of students
- Stresses content and neglect students needs,
interests are experiences
- Teachers tends to foster passivity for learning
among the students
2. Correlated Design
Strengths:
- An attempt to eliminate the isolation and
compartmentalization of subject without radically
overhauling he subject design curriculum
- Disciplines linked while keeping identifies of each
Limitations:
- Will require the teachers to plan their lessons
cooperatively
- Most class schedules do not allow sufficient block
of time for students to meaningfully study
correlated subjects
3. Broad field Design
Strengths:
- Serves as a response to society’s demand for
integration of knowledge and more
comprehensive models of knowledge
- Dissolves the boundaries in ways that make
the information meaningful for the students
- Knowledge will no longer be fragmented or
linear but multidisciplinary and
multidimensional
Limitations:
- The issue of breadth versus depth
4. Process Design
Strengths:
- The numerous curricula for teaching critical
thinking exemplify this procedural design
- Learning how to learn design

B. LEARNER CENTERED DESIGN

- The students are the center or the focus of the
program. These designs are found more
frequently at the elementary school level where
teachers tend to stress the development of the
whole child.
1. Child-Centered Design
- Students are actively involved in their
environment
- “custom made” on students lives, needs and
interests
- Children would attain self-realization through
social participation
- Emphasis on the child displaced the
emphasis on subject-matter
2. Experienced-Centered Design
- Curriculum cannot be pre-planned, that
everything had to be done “on the
spot”
- Heavy emphasis on learners interests
and felt needs
- Curriculum would be ever changing in
addressing the needs of students.
C. Problem-Centered Designs
- Problem centered designs are organized
to reinforce cultural traditions and also
address those community and societal
needs that are currently unmet. The
major concern is with genuine life
problems, and the need to adjust or
cater to the concerns and situation of
learners.
1. Life Situation Design
Strengths:
- Focus on the problem solving procedures for
learning
- Content is organized in ways to allow
students to clearly view problem areas
- Utilizes past and current experiences of
learners as means of making them analyze
the basic areas of living
- Linking of subject matter to real situations
increased the relevance of the curriculum.
Limitations:
- Ability to determined the scope and
sequence of the essential areas of living
- Tends to indoctrinate youth into the
existing condition
- Many teachers are not comfortable with
it because it departs from curricular
tradition maintained by colleges and
universities.
2. Core Design
- Sometimes called “social function”
- Aims at creating a universal sense of
inquiry, discuss and understanding
among learners of different
background.
- Centers on general education and is
based on problems arising out of
common human activities
- Variations of core designs:
a. Subject matter core would be
classified as subject centered design
b. Areas of living core rooted in the
progressive education
- It unifies content, present subject
matter relevant to the learners and
encourages active processing of
information.
Curriculum Approaches
- Several curriculum approaches reflect the
developer’s view of reality, philosophy,
history, psychology, social issues and the
domain of knowledge among others. An
approach expresses a viewpoint about
the development and design of
curriculums. It can be viewed from a
technical and non technical or scientific
and non-scientific perspective (Bago,
2001)
A. Technical-Scientific Approach
- It reflects the traditional view on education and
formal methods of schooling. The technical-
scientific approach views curriculum
development as something similar to
engineering and architecture which use
instruments and empirical methods in preparing
blueprints.
1. Behavioral-Rational Approach
- Oldest and still the most prepared approach
- It is a means – end approach which is logical and
perspective.
Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles. This is
also popularly known as Tyler’s Rationale.
Four Fundamental Principles
1. What educational purpose should the school
seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be
provided that are likely to attain these
purpose?
3. How can these education experiences be
effectively organized.
4. How can we determine whether purposes
are being attained or not?
1. Systems-Managerial Approach
- Considers the interconnected elements
of inputs, throughputs (process) and
output that comprise the educational
system
- Emphasizes the managerial/leadership
and supervisory aspects of curriculum
especially in the implementation and
organization process
- A cyclic process
3. Intellectual-Academic Approach
- Emphasizes the importance of
theories and principles in curriculum
planning
- Because of the cognitive demands of
the approach, it overwhelms many
beginning students who usually lack
sufficient philosophical and
theoretical insights on the subject.
Flowchart of Taba’s (1962) Seven Stages of
Curriculum Development

Diagnosis Formulation Selection of Organization

of needs of objectives content of content

Determination Organization of
Selection of
of what and learning
learning
how to evaluate experiences
experiences

Curriculum
B. Non-Technical/Non-Scientific Approach
1. Humanistic-Aesthetic Approach
- Promotes the liberation of learners from
authoritarian teachers
- Encourages group learning activities which
promote cooperation rather than individual
competition
- Emphasis on how to learn, not on what to
learn.
2. Reconceptualist Approach
- Reflects the existentialist orientation
- Purpose of education is to
emancipate society from traditional,
outmoded orders through individual
free choice
- Emphasize learning experiences that
develop personal self-expression
3. Reconstructionism
- Considers the school as an agent
of change, an institution of social
reform
- Emphasizes cultural pluralism,
internationalism and pluralism
which are beyond individual
concerns.
IV. Role of Stakeholders in
Curriculum Development
- Include individuals or groups who
directly influence and make
important contributions to the
curriculum.
May be categorized as community
based (whose influence on
curriculum is at societal or
institutional levels) or school
based (whose contributions to
the curriculum are either on the
institutional level, instructional
level, or experiential level)
A. School-based
Learners
- The stakeholders of the curriculum,
whose needs and abilities are the
basis of curriculum content solution
ad whose achievement level
measures the effectiveness of the
curriculum
Teachers
- Establish direction and implementation
of a particular program
- Select content to be given emphasis
- Assist/contribute in the preparation of
the scope and sequence of the program
- Attend to the pedagogical concerns such
that they modify the curriculum to suit
the needs of the learners help in
evaluating the effectiveness of the
curriculum
School Administrators
- Supervise curriculum implementations
- Select, recruit and hire qualified teachers
- Admit students
- Take charge in the procurement of school equipment
and instructional materials needed for the effective
delivery of instruction
B. Community-based
Parents
- Support and participate in parent-school organizations
where priorities for the curriculum are set
Publishers
- provide/develop instructional materials based on the
prescribed curriculum
Lawmakers/government officials
- Authorize school budget
- Enact legislations to effect, curriculum change or
improvement
- Issue guidelines in designing and implementing
curriculum
Community-at-large
-often dictates the purpose, goals and context of
school curricula
Recommend directions and changes in the
curriculum
V. Curriculum Process
A. Curriculum Planning
1. Determinants for Curriculum Planning
a. Learners – the consumer education
b. Society – any society to progress
economically must progress
educationally.
c. Knowledge – set up environment which
will challenge all students to master
knowledge
2. Needs Assessment
- Needs assessment is completed to
identify the strengths and weakness
of the existing curriculum situations
and to provide directions for their
environment. It is a systematic
exploration of the way things are
and the way they should be
3. Formulating Goals
- Goals are statements of endpoints or
outcomes of education – statement of
purpose. By analyzing school goals we can
determine the scope of its entire educational
program.
Sources of Goals
1. Learners – the purposes, interests,
developmental needs and characteristics of
the learner should guide the choice of
appropriate goals.
2. Society – the values and behaviors
defined as desirable by a given
society help shape the goals of
education in that society.
3. Fund of Knowledge – human
knowledge that has been
accumulated and organized for
universal use and should be taken
into account in shaping the goals.
Levels of Goals
1. Institutional Goals
2. School Level or Department Goals
3. Program or Curricular Goals
4. Classroom or Institutional Level
B. Curriculum Designing (Curriculum
Organization)
- Curriculum design is concerned with the
nature and arrangements of the four basic
curricular parts (also called components or
elements).
1. Sources of Design
a. Science – the scientific method
provides meaning for the
curriculum design
b. Society – school should draw its
ideals for the curriculum from
the analysis of the social
situation.
The Components Design
Objectives

Subject Matter Method and

Organization

Evaluation
c. Eternal and Divine Sources – designers
should simply draw on the past for
guidance as to what is appropriate
content.
d. Knowledge – “What knowledge is of
most worth?”
e. Learner – curriculum should be derived
for what we know about the learners,
how he or she learns, forms attitude,
generates interest and develops values.
2. Dimensions of Curriculum Designs
(BASICS)
Basics – equitable distribution of
content, time, experiences and other
elements of design
Articulation – interrelatedness of
various aspects of the curriculum
(vertical and horizontal)
Scope – the breaths and depths of the
curriculum
Integrations – refers to the linking of
all types of knowledge and
experiences contained within the
curriculum plan.
Continuity – vertical repetition and
recurring of the content
Sequence – provide continuous and
cumulative learning
Principles of Sequence
1.Simple to complex
2.Prerequisite learning
3.Whole to part
4.chronological
3. Selection of the Curricular Elements
1. Selection of Objectives
- Should describe behavior
- Stated analytically and specifically
- Developmental rather than terminal
- SMART
- Considers the 3 objective domains
2. Selection of Content
- Criteria for selecting content
- 1. Validity – if it is authentic
- 2. Significance/relevance – consistent
with social realities, pursues needs of the
time.
- 3. Balance of breadths and depths –
coverage
- 4. Learnability – adjustable to learner’s
ability
5. Appropriateness – parallel with learner’s
needs and interest
6. Utility – useful on the performance of life
activities

3. Selection of Learning Experiences

1. Appropriateness – should be appropriate and
suitable to the content, activities and level of
development of the learners.
2. Variety – should include minds on, hands on,
and authentic learning experiences
3. Optimal Value – should encourage the learners to
continue learning on their own.
4. Feasibility – in terms of human, physical and
financial resources

4. Grade Placement
- Involves allocation of content to definite grade
capable of learning
- Considers such factors as: child’s ability, difficulty
of item, importance of content, maturation,
mental age, experiential background
5. Time allotment
- Refers to specification of definite
time for subject/course; amount of
time given to a subject
- Considers such factors as;
importance of subject; child’s ability;
grade level average number of
days/hours.
C. Curriculum Implementation
- Implementation is an interaction
between those who have created the
programme and those who are in
charged to deliver it. Accdg to Ornstein
and Hunskins (1998), implementation:
• Requires educators to shift from the
current programmed which they are
familiar with to the new or modified
programme.
• It involves changes in the knowledge,
actions and attitudes of people.
• Can be seen as a process of
professional development and
growth involving on going
interactions, feedback and
assistance.
• Is a process of clarification whereby individuals
and groups come to understand and practice a
change in attitudes and behaviors; often involving
using new resources.
• Involves change which requires effort and will
produce a certain amount of anxiety and to
minimize these, it is useful to organize
implementation into manageable events and to
set achievable goals.
• Requires a supportive atmosphere in which there
is a trust and open communication between
administration, teachers, educators, and where
risk-taking is encouraged.
D. Curriculum Evaluation
- This process of delineating, obtaining and providing
useful information for judging decision alternatives.
- Involves value judgment about the curriculum
- “Did we do what we wanted to do?”

Types of Evaluation:
1. According to Approach – Humanistic vs Scientific
2. According to Scope – Evaluation of Learning vs
Program Evaluation
3. According to timing – Formative vs Summative
Why Evaluate:
1. Meet demands that current educational
reforms have made
2. Provide directions, security, and feedbacks to
all concerned.
3. Determine appropriate and available
resources, activities, content, method or
whether curriculum has coherence, balance,
articulation, scope, integration, continuity
and sequence in order to meet curriculum
goals/objectives
What Areas in curriculum are qualified for
evaluation?
1. Mission statement (philosophy)
2. Sequence (order)
3. Continuity (without disruptions)
4. Scope (depth/variety of content
5. Articulation ( how parts fits)
6. Balance ( quantitative and qualitative aspects
of content
7. Coherence ( relationships among different
components)
E. Curriculum Improvement
- Enriching modifying certain aspects
without changing fundamental
conceptions/elements/structure
Levels of Operations for Improvement
1. Substitution – substituting a new book
for the current series
2. Alternation – adding to instructional
time
3. Variations – transferring a
successful program
4. Restructuring – organizing teams
for teacher and specialists
6. Value orientation change –
shifting from routine instruction
to computer assisted instruction
Actions that Facilitate Curriculum
Improvement
1. Change climate and working
condition to encourage
improvement
2. Maintain appropriate tempo
3. Arrange for variety of activities
4. Build evaluation procedure
F. Curriculum Change
- Refers to the basic alteration in the
structure and design of learning
experiences based on conceptions
which may be at the school, district
or national level.
- To make different by shifting to new
goals and means
Principles that Guide Change Process
1. People improve when they detect
the desire of the stimulator to
improve himself.
2. Direction of improvement should be
determined cooperatively
3. People must identify and examine
each others centrally held values
4. People improve through experience
5. Divide time between contact individual
and with group
6. People’s resistance to efforts of others
constitutes major individual difference
7. Create a climate of freedom
8. Keep channels of communication open
9. Use power with great care
10. Operate on a limited number of fronts
at a given time.
VI. Curriculum Alignment

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Curriculum Alignment
- Alignment between curriculum and one or
more of the following elements, state
standards, standardized test/state test,
curriculum embedded tests, student’s
assignments, lesson plans, textbooks and
instruction.
Vertical Alignment – planning curriculum across
the grade levels from kindergarten through
high school, building upon instruction based
upon standards
Horizontal Alignment – alignment
of the curriculum being taught by
teachers in common grade level
Written Curriculum – specifies
what is to be taught and is
produced by the state, the school
system, the school and the
classroom teacher.
Taught Curriculum – what teacher
actually teach in the classroom.
Tested Curriculum – provides
valuable feedback about each
student’s understanding of
essential content, concepts and
skills.
Benefits of Curriculum Alignment:
1. Improves students test scores by making
sure the information a teacher teaches
in her classroom lines up with the
information covered on standardized
test.
2. Teachers can collaborate together more
effectively of they all have the same
basic goal for their lessons.
3. Helps a school or individual teacher
prove the students are learning
material that lines up with state
standards.
4. Students can travel from school to
school and still have the same basic
instruction
5. Ensures an increased in the students
academic performance.
Analyzing Test Item
1. Which is NOT a provision for the development of each
learner in a good curriculum?
a. Extensive arrangements are made for the educational
diagnosis of individual learners.
b. Self-directed, independent study is encourage wherever
possible and advisable.
c. Self motivation and self-evaluation are stimulated and
emphasized throughout the learning opportunities of the
school.
d. The program provides a wide range of opportunities for
individuals with same abilities, needs and interests.
2. Teacher Lily would like to take part in developing a subject-
centered curriculum because she believes that all subjects in
this type of curriculum are geared towards the holistic
development of the learner. Is her belief about the subject-
centered curriculum true?
a. Yes, because the subject-centered curriculum focuses on the
learners needs, interest and abilities.
b. No, because it is the experience-centered curriculum that
emphasizes the teaching of facts and knowledge for future use.
c. Yes, because the subject-centered curriculum involves
cooperative control.
d. No, because it is the experience centered and not the subject
centered curriculum emphasizes integration of habits and skills
in learning the knowledge component of a subject areas.
3. In the elementary level, English literature and
Social Studies relate well. While history is
being studied, different literary pieces during
the historical period is being studied as well.
What curriculum design is shown here?
a. Separate Subject design
b. discipline design
c. correlation design
d. broad field design
4. This phase of curriculum development
involves decisions, among other things, on
grade placement and sequencing of content.
Which phase is lost?
a. Curriculum planning
b. curriculum evaluation
c. curriculum organization
d. curriculum implementation
5. Ms. Ortiz, a Science teacher tries to enrich the
content of her lesson by identifying related
concepts in Math. What pattern of organizing
subjects did Ms. Ortiz consider?
a. Broadfield
b. Correlated
c. Core
d. Separate subject