Marketing Research: An Applied Orientation

Seventh Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 6
Descriptive Research
Design: Survey and
Observation

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Chapter Outline (1 of 6)
1) Overview
2) Survey Methods
3) Survey Methods Classified by Mode of Administration
i. Telephone Methods
a. Traditional Telephone Interviews
b. Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI)
ii. Personal Methods
a. Personal In-home Interviews
b. Mall-Intercept Personal Interviews
c. Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI)

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Chapter Outline (2 of 6)
iii. Mail Methods
a. Mail Interviews
b. Mail Panels
iv. Electronic Methods
a. Email Interviews
b. Internet Interviews
4) A Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods
v. Task Factors
a. Diversity of Questions and Flexibility

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Chapter Outline (3 of 6)
b. Use of Physical Stimuli
c. Sample Control
d. Quantity of Data
e. Response Rate
ii. Situational Factors
a. Control of the Data Collection Environment
b. Control of Field Force
c. Potential for Interviewer Bias
d. Speed
e. Cost

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Chapter Outline (4 of 6)
iii. Respondent Factors
a. Perceived Anonymity
b. Social Desirability
c. Sensitive Information
d. Low Incidence Rate
e. Respondent Control
5) Selection of Survey Method(s)
6) Observation Methods
iv. Structured Vs. Unstructured Observation
v. Disguised Vs. Undisguised Observation
vi. Natural Vs. Contrived Observation
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Chapter Outline (5 of 6)
7) Observational Methods Classified by Mode of
Administration
i. Personal Observation
ii. Mechanical Observation
iii. Audit
iv. Content Analysis
v. Trace Analysis
8) A Comparative Evaluation of Observational Methods
i. Degree of Structure
ii. Degree of Disguise
iii. Ability to Observe in Natural Setting
iv. Analysis Bias
v. General Remarks
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Chapter Outline (6 of 6)
9) A Comparison of Survey and Observational Methods
i. Relative Advantages of Observation
ii. Relative Disadvantages of Observation
10) Ethnographic Research & Other Methods
11) International Marketing Research
12) Marketing Research & Social Media
13) Mobile Marketing Research
14) Ethics in Marketing Research
15) Summary

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A Classification of Survey Methods
Figure 6.1 A Classification of Survey Methods

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Some Decisions Related to the Mail
Interview Package
Outgoing Envelope Blank
Table 6.1 Some Outgoing envelope: size, color, return address Blank
Decisions Related to Postage Blank

the Mail Interview Method of addressing

Cover Letter
Blank
Blank
Package Sponsorship Signature
Personalization Postscript
Type of appeal Blank
Questionnaire Blank
Length Layout
Content Color
Size Format
Reproduction Respondent anonymity
Return Envelope Blank
Type of envelope Blank
Postage Blank
Incentives Blank
Monetary versus nonmonetary Blank
Prepaid versus promised amount Blank

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Sample Mailing Lists
List Title Number on List Price
Advertising agencies 3892 $45/M
Banks, branches 11089 $85/M
Boat owners 4289601 $50/M
Chambers of Commerce 6559 $45/M
Personal computer owners 2218672 Inquire

Families 76000000 Inquire

Hardware wholesalers 7378 $45/M
Magazines, consumers 4119 $45/M
Photographic, portrait 33742 $45/M
Sales executives 190002 $55/M
Wives of professional men 1663614 $60/M
YMCAs 1036 $85

*Price shown is per 1000 names (/M), except where noted.

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Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods (1 of 6)
TASK FACTORS
Diversity of Questions and Flexibility of Data Collection
• The flexibility of data collection is determined primarily by the
extent to which the respondent can interact with the interviewer
and the survey questionnaire. The diversity of questions that
can be asked in a survey depends upon the degree of
interaction the respondent has with the interviewer and the
questionnaire, as well as the ability to actually see the
questions.
Use of Physical Stimuli
• The ability to use physical stimuli such as the product, a product
prototype, commercials, or promotional displays during the
interview.
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Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods (2 of 6)
Sample Control
• Sample control is the ability of the
survey mode to reach the units specified
in the sample effectively and efficiently.
Quantity of Data
• The ability to collect large amounts of
data.
Response Rate
• Survey response rate is broadly defined
as the percentage of the total attempted
interviews that are completed.

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Random Digit Directory Designs
Figure 6.2 Random Digit Directory Designs

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Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods (3 of 6)
SITUATIONAL FACTORS
Control of the Data Collection Environment
• The degree of control a researcher has over the
environment in which the respondent answers the
questionnaire.
Control of Field Force
• The ability to control the interviewers and supervisors
involved in data collection.

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Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods (4 of 6)
Potential for Interviewer Bias
• The extent of the interviewer's role determines the
potential for bias.
Speed
• The total time taken for administering the survey to the
entire sample.
Cost
• The total cost of administering the survey and collecting
the data.

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Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods (5 of 6)
RESPONDENT FACTORS
Perceived Anonymity
• Perceived anonymity refers to the respondents'
perceptions that their identities will not be discerned by the
interviewer or the researcher.
Social Desirability/Sensitive Information
• Social desirability is the tendency of the respondents to
give answers that are socially acceptable, whether or not
they are true. With some exceptions, obtaining sensitive
information is inversely related to social desirability.

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Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods (6 of 6)
Low Incidence Rate
• Incidence rate refers to rate of occurrence of persons
eligible to participate in the study.
Respondent Control
• Methods that allow respondents control over the
interviewing process will solicit greater cooperation and are
therefore desirable.

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 A Comparative Evaluation of Survey
Methods (1 of 3)
Table 6.2 A Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods
Telephone In-Home Mall-Intercept Mail
Criteria CATI Interviews Interviews CAPI Surveys Mail Panels Email Internet Mobile
Task Factors blank blank blank blank blank blank blank blank blank

Diversity of Low to High High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low
questions and moderate to high to high
flexibility
Use of physical Low Moderate to High High Moderate Moderate Low Moderate Low to
stimuli high to high moderate
Sample control Moderate Potentially Moderate Moderate Low Moderate to Low Low to Low to
to high high high moderate moderate
Quantity of Low High Moderate Moderate Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low
data
Response rate Moderate High High High Low High Low Very low Moderate

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 A Comparative Evaluation of Survey
Methods (2 of 3)
[Table 6.2 Continued]
Mail
Telephone In-Home Mall-Intercept Survey Mail
Criteria CATI Interviews Interviews CAPI s Panels Email Internet Mobile
Situational Factors blank blank blank blank blank blank blank blank blank

Control of data Moderate Moderate to High High Low Low Low Low Low
collection high
environment
Control of field force Moderate Low Moderate Moderate High High High High High

Potential for Moderate High High Low None None None None None
interviewer bias
Speed High Moderate Moderate to Moderate Low Low to High Very high Very high
high to high moderate
Cost Moderate High Moderate to Moderate Low Low to Low Low Low to
high to high moderate moderate

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 A Comparative Evaluation of Survey
Methods (3 of 3)
[Table 6.2 Continued]
In-Home
Telephone Interview Mall-Intercept Mail Mail
Criteria CATI s Interviews CAPI Surveys Panels Email Internet Mobile
Respondent Factors blank blank blank blank blank blank blank blank blank

Perceived anonymity Moderate Low Low Low High High Moderate High Moderate
of the respondent

Social desirability Moderate High High Moderate Low Low Moderate Low Low
to high
Obtaining sensitive High Low Low Low to High Moderate Moderate High Moderate
information moderate to high to high

Low incidence rate High Low Low Low Moderate Moderate Moderate High High

Respondent control Low to Low Low Low High High High Moderat High
moderate e
to high

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Some Other Survey Methods
Table 6.3 Additional Survey Methods
Method Advantages/Disadvantages Comment
Completely automated Same as CATI Useful for short, in-bound surveys
telephone surveys (CATS) initiated by respondent.
Mobile phone interview Same as CATI Useful for point-of-purchase survey if
(voice-based format) respondent cooperation is obtained.
Mobile phone interview Same as email Useful for point-of-purchase survey if
(text-based format) respondent cooperation is obtained.
In-office interview Same as in-home interview Useful for interviewing busy managers.
Central location interview Same as mall-intercept interview Examples include trade shows,
conferences, exhibitions, purchase-
intercepts.
Kiosk-based computer Same as CAPI Useful in trade shows and public
interview places.
Fax interview Same as mail survey, except Useful in some business surveys.
higher response rate
Drop-off survey Same as mail survey, except Useful for local-market surveys.
higher cost and higher response
rate

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Observation Methods - Structured Versus
Unstructured Observation
• For structured observation, the researcher specifies in
detail what is to be observed and how the measurements
are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor performing inventory
analysis in a store.
• In unstructured observation, the observer monitors all
aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to the
problem at hand, e.g., observing children playing with new
toys.

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Observation Methods - Disguised Versus
Undisguised Observation
• In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware
that they are being observed. Disguise may be
accomplished by using one-way mirrors, hidden cameras,
or inconspicuous mechanical devices. Observers may be
disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.
• In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware
that they are under observation.

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Observation Methods - Natural Versus
Contrived Observation
• Natural observation involves observing behavior as it
takes places in the environment. For example, one could
observe the behavior of respondents eating fast food at
Burger King.
• In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is
observed in an artificial environment, such as a test
kitchen.

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A Classification of Observation Methods
Figure 6.3 A Classification of Observation Methods

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Observation Methods: Personal
Observation
• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.
• The observer does not attempt to manipulate the
phenomenon being observed but merely records what
takes place.
• For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and
observe traffic flows in a department store.

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Observation Methods: Mechanical
Observation
Do not require respondents' direct participation.
• The AC Nielsen audimeter
• Turnstiles that record the number of people entering or leaving a
building
• On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
• Optical scanners in supermarkets
Do require respondent involvement.
• Eye-tracking monitors
• Pupilometers
• Psychogalvanometers
• Voice pitch analyzers
• Devices measuring response latency

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Observation Methods: Audit
• The researcher collects data by examining physical
records or performing inventory analysis.
• Data are collected personally by the researcher.
• The data are based upon counts, usually of physical
objects.
• Retail and wholesale audits conducted by marketing
research suppliers were discussed in the context of
syndicated data in Chapter 4.

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Observation Methods: Content Analysis
• The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of
the manifest content of a communication.
• The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals
or objects), themes (propositions), space and time
measures (length or duration of the message), or topics
(subject of the message).
• Analytical categories for classifying the units are
developed and the communication is broken down
according to prescribed rules.

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Observation Methods: Trace Analysis (1 of 2)
Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of
past behavior.
 The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by
the replacement rate was used to determine the
relative popularity of exhibits.
 The number of different fingerprints on a page was
used to gauge the readership of various
advertisements in a magazine.
 The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for
service was used to estimate share of listening
audience of various radio stations.

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Observation Methods: Trace Analysis (2 of 2)
 The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were
used to assess the affluence of customers.
 The magazines people donated to charity were used to
determine people's favorite magazines.
 Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to
examine browsing and usage behavior by using
cookies.

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A Comparative Evaluation of Observation
Methods
Table 6.4 A Comparative Evaluation of Observation Methods

Personal Mechanical Content Trace

Criteria Observation Observation Audit Analysis Analysis
Degree of structure Low Low to high High High Medium

Degree of disguise Medium Low to high Low High High

Ability to observe High Low to high High Medium Low

in natural setting

Observation bias High Low Low Medium Medium

Analysis bias High Low to medium Low Low Medium

General remarks Most flexible Can be intrusive Expensive Limited to Method of

communications last resort

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Relative Advantages of Observation
• They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than
reports of intended or preferred behavior.
• There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by
the interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated
or reduced.
• Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.
• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of
short duration, observational methods may be cheaper and
faster than survey methods.

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Relative Disadvantages of Observation
• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined
since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs,
attitudes, and preferences.
• Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can
bias the data.
• Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive,
and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior.
• In some cases, the use of observational methods may be
unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or
consent.
It is best to view observation as a complement to survey
methods, rather than as being in competition with them.

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International Marketing Research (1 of 5)
• Given the differences in the economic, structural,
informational, technological, and sociocultural
environments, the feasibility and popularity of the different
interviewing methods vary widely across countries.
• In the United States and Canada, nearly all households
have telephones and telephone interviewing is the
dominant mode of administering questionnaires. This is
also true in some European countries, such as Sweden.
• In-home personal interviews are the dominant mode of
collecting survey data in many European countries, such
as Switzerland, and in newly industrialized countries
(NICs) or developing countries.
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International Marketing Research (2 of 5)
• Although mall intercepts are being conducted in some
European countries, such as Sweden, they are not popular
in other European countries or in developing countries.
• Central location/street interviews constitute the dominant
method of collecting survey data in France and the
Netherlands.
• Due to their low cost, mail interviews continue to be used
in most developed countries where literacy is high and the
postal system is well developed. In Africa, Asia, and South
America, however, the use of mail surveys and mail panels
is low because of illiteracy and the large proportion of the
population living in rural areas.
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International Marketing Research (3 of 5)
• Access to the Web or email is limited in many countries,
particularly developing countries. Hence, the use of electronic
surveys is not feasible, especially for interviewing households in
rural areas.
• Different incentives are more or less effective in improving
response rates in different countries. In Japan, it is more
appropriate to use gifts with business surveys rather than cash
as incentives. The same is true for household surveys in
Mexico.
• When collecting data from different countries, it is desirable to
use survey methods with equivalent levels of reliability rather
than necessarily using the identical method.

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International Marketing Research (4 of 5)
Table 6.5 The Impact of Cultural and Environmental Factors
on the Selection of Survey Methods
• A survey that takes 20 minutes in the United States could take more than twice as long
in Germany. The German language is not as concise as English, and Germans like to
talk more than Americans do. For similar reasons, the interviewing time could be longer
in other countries as well, such as in Brazil.
• Telephone directories are unreliable in some countries (e.g., some African nations, such
as Sierra Leone), because they are updated infrequently.
• The incidence of unlisted telephones can vary widely across countries and across
segments. For example, in Colombia, the numbers of some members of the elite and
upper classes are never listed.
• In some countries, such as Japan, China, Thailand, Malaysia, and those in Southeast
Asia, telephone interviews are considered rude. In contrast, in some South American
countries, such as Argentina and Peru, the response rates to telephone surveys is high
given the low levels of telemarketing and the element of surprise in receiving an
unexpected long-distance or local call.

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International Marketing Research (5 of 5)
[Table 6.5 Continued]
• Traditional personal interviewing methods remain popular in some European countries
(e.g., Switzerland, Sweden, France), Asian countries (e.g., China, India, Hong Kong),
African countries (e.g., Nigeria, Kenya), and South American countries (e.g., Colombia,
Mexico) due to the prevalence of face-to-culture.
• Low literacy rates and/or the lack of a reliable postal system in rural areas might make
mail surveys infeasible in some countries (e.g., Ghana, Ivory Coast, El Salvador,
Uruguay, Paraguay).
• Mall interviews are limited due to the lack of shopping malls in many developing
countries and some developed countries (e.g., Germany). In addition, domestic laws
might prohibit or make it more difficult to interview people while shopping.
• Telephone penetration is low in some countries, particularly in rural areas. In some
countries, such as Cambodia, multiple families might share a phone line because of
high phone rates.
• In countries with high cellular/mobile phone penetration and low hard/wired-line
penetration (e.g., Thailand, Malaysia), the use of traditional phone surveys is
unappealing.
• Poor access to computers and the Internet makes the use of electronic interviewing
infeasible in some countries (e.g., rural populations in Africa, Asia, and South America).

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A Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods
for International Marketing Research (1 of 2)
Table 6.6 A Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods for
International Marketing Research
Criteria Telephone/Mobile Personal Mail Electronic
High sample control + + − −
Difficulty in locating respondents at + − + +
home

Inaccessibility of homes + − + +
Unavailability of a large pool of trained + − + +
interviewers

Large population in rural areas − + − −

Unavailability of maps + − + +
Unavailability of current − + − +
telephone/mobile directory

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A Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods
for International Marketing Research (2 of 2)
[Table 6.6 Continued]

Criteria Telephone/Mobile Personal Mail Electronic

Unavailability of mailing lists + + − +

Low penetration of telephone/mobile − + + −

Lack of an efficient postal system + + − +

Low level of literacy − + − −

Face-to-face communication culture − + − −

Poor access to computers and Internet ? + ? −

Note: A + denotes an advantage, and a − denotes a disadvantage.

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Marketing Research & Social Media (1 of 5)
Surveys
• Short surveys can be administered on the social media site
itself, e.g., a Facebook page. For longer surveys, a link
can be provided on the site that directs the user to the
survey site.

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Marketing Research & Social Media (2 of 5)
Advantages of Social Media for Conducting Surveys
Social media offer the following advantages for conducting
surveys:
• Wider coverage through virtual nature of outreach
• Simplicity in implementing surveys due to easy to use social media
tools
• Ability to field more complex questions with aid from interactive
multimedia computing
• Responses are more candid due to the veil of anonymity and lack of
physical interaction thus encouraging honest feedback
• Improved accessibility – Nature of Internet allows tags and URLS to be
linked to other sites of interest, thus content of surveys are more
accessible.
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Marketing Research & Social Media (3 of 5)
Advantages of Social Media for Conducting Surveys
• Lower cost of research – no need to maintain large field force of
interviewers and supervisors
• Ability to use multiple survey methods. For example, social media
worlds such as Second Life allow one-to-one internet phone surveys
to be made.
• No interviewer bias
• Low social desirability
• High-speed, instantaneous results of polling

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Marketing Research & Social Media (4 of 5)
Disadvantages of Social Media for Conducting Surveys
Social media offer the following disadvantages for
conducting surveys:
• Surveys do not address the responses from nonusers of social media,
especially the older consumers.
• Survey administration is difficult to control and content may be
accessible to competitors.
• Response rate may be low because of the clutter involved through the
use of virtual communities. Surveys may be dismissed as spam.
• Confidentiality is an issue to consumers because of the relatively
insecure features of virtual media, thus discouraging the release of
sensitive information.

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Marketing Research & Social Media (5 of 5)
Observation
• The comments, photos, videos, audio, and other stimuli posted
voluntarily by consumers on their social media sites are traces of their
behaviors. An analysis of these constitutes a form of observation
known as trace analysis.
• Some researchers consider participant blogs and online research
communities to be examples of e-ethnography or netnography
(ethnographic research online).
• It is also possible to more directly observe the behavior of interest to
the researcher in the virtual world, e.g., Second Life.

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Mobile Marketing Research (1 of 2)
• MMR firms have created Software Development Kits for app
publishers to integrate the survey tool into their apps.
Alternatively, the sample of mobile users is sent a SMS
containing a survey invitation.
• Mobile surveys share many of the features of other self-
administered surveys (mail, mail panel, email, and Internet).
These include control of the data collection environment, control
of the field force, potential for interviewer bias, and all the
respondent factors (perceived anonymity, social desirability,
obtaining sensitive information, low incidence rate and
respondent control). In terms of speed, they are similar (or
better) than Internet surveys but can cost more (see Table 6.2).

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Mobile Marketing Research (2 of 2)
• The main disadvantages of mobile surveys lie in the task factors
of Table 6.2. The diversity of questions and flexibility are low
given the limited size of the mobile device, especially smart
phones. The use of physical stimuli is low to moderate.
• Sample control is low to moderate. Sample representativeness
may be another serious issue.
• The quantity of data is low. Surveys must be kept short and
simple. The norm is to ask no more than 15 questions and the
entire process to take less than 15 minutes.
• MMR can be combined with other survey modes, particularly
CAPI and CATI.

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Ethics in Marketing Research (1 of 2)
• Surveys often are used as a cover for a targeted sales
effort. This practice, called “sugging” in the trade language,
is unethical.
• A similar unethical practice is “frugging” and involves
fundraising under the guise of research.
• Respondents’ anonymity, discussed in the context of
qualitative research in Chapter 6, is an important issue
also in survey as well as observational search.
• The researcher has the responsibility to use an appropriate
survey method in an ethical and legal way.

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Ethics in Marketing Research (2 of 2)
• Researchers often observe people’s behavior without their
consent, arguing that informing the respondents might alter
their behavior. This can be considered an invasion of the
respondents’ privacy. Such observation should only be
conducted in places where people would expect to be
observed by the public. After observing their behavior, the
researcher is still obligated to obtain the necessary
permission from the subjects.
• The common practice of serving cookies on the Internet
raises ethical concerns.

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Copyright

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