Data Communications

Communicating over the Network

1
 Objectives:
Understand the concept of data communication and the platform for
communication

Describe the structure of a network, including the devices and media that are
necessary for successful communications.

Identify Networking Software Requirements

Identify network standards and protocols

Define and differentiate OSI and TCP/IP models

2
 Communicating the Message
In data communication system data is transmitted from one point to
another by means of electrical signal.
Communication system components:
Source (sender): generates data to be transmitted
Transmitter (encoder): Converts data /message into transmittable
signals
Transmission System (channel): Carries data
Receiver (decoder): Converts received signal into data / message
Destination: Takes incoming data

3
Simplified Communications Model Diagram

4
 Cont’d…

Assume conversation over a telephone line

Source: Data generator (person who talks)
Transmitter: transform + encode information (telephone apparatus)
Transmission system: system connecting source and destination (the
telephone line)
Receiver: transform back to understandable form by the destination
(telephone apparatus)
Destination: Data receiver (person who listens)
5
Data Transmission

6
 Concepts and Terminology
Data transmission occurs between transmitter and receiver over some
transmission medium.
Signal: electromagnetic waves---Can propagate along the transmission medium
Transmission Medium: is a communication channel that transmits information
from the transmitter to the receiver. It is a physical path for data transfer through
electromagnetic signals.
Data rate: the speed at which data is transferred within the computer or between a
peripheral device and the computer, measured in bits per second(bps). (bit rate )
Signal rate: is the number of signal elements sent in 1 s.
 One goal in data communications is to increase the data rate while decreasing
the signal rate.
 Increasing the data rate increases the speed of transmission. 7
Data Transmission Modes

There are three types of transmission /communication modes that are

used to transfer data between two devices:
1. Simplex Mode
2. Half duplex Mode
3. Full duplex Mode

8
 Simplex Transmission

Signals are transmitted in only one direction i.e. communication is

unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender.

With simplex transmission, problems encountered during the transmission are

not detected and corrected. Senders cannot even be sure that the data is
received.
• e.g. Television, Radio,

keyboard and monitor

9
 Half Duplex

Signals can be transmitted in either direction, but only one way at a

time.

It is possible to perform error detection and request the sender to

retransmit information that arrived corrupted.
• e.g. walkie-talkie, Browsing the World Wide Web

10
Full Duplex

Both stations may transmit data simultaneously.

e.g. telephone, Communication channels between two computers

In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the
other for receiving data.

11
Components of the Network

• Hardware (includes devices and media)

 End devices
 Intermediary devices
 Media device

• Software (services and processes)

 Network OS
 Network browsers

12
 Network Hardware

When we refer to network hardware we are talking about a range of

electronic devices that can be interconnected in such a way as to
allow the transmission of signals between a number of workstations.

These devices range from simple generic hubs to sophisticated

proprietary hardware such as routers and gateways.

13
 Network Hardware...
The most commonly used network hardware components are:
End devices
intermediary devices
Media devices

14
End Devices & Their Roles

An end device is a source or destination device that form the interface
between users (human network) and the underlying communication network
in a networked system.

Examples: computers, printers, VoIP Phones, cameras, cell phones, etc.

Originate data flow!

Commonly referred to as hosts (source or destination of a message)

Each host has an address that will identify it on the network

15
 Cont’d…
Role of end devices:

Client (can request & display info from the server)

Server (provide information and services to other hosts)

Both client and server

16
 Servers
Robust central computers at the heart of a network.
The server contains the file, print, application, security, and other
services in a central computer that is continuously available to
respond to client requests.
There are different types of servers based on the need of the
organization:
• File Server
• Printer Server
• Database Server 17
 Intermediary Devices & Their Role
Intermediary devices interconnect end devices.

Intermediary devices connect the individual hosts to the network and

can connect multiple individual networks to form an internetwork.

Examples: Repeaters, Hubs, Switches, Bridges,, Access points,

Routers, Firewalls, etc.

18
 Cont’d…
Role of an intermediary device:

 Provides connectivity and manages data flows across network

 Works behind the scenes

 Determines the path data will travel to get from source to destination

 Knows all the paths that exist

 Informs other like devices about errors or communication failures

 Retimes & retransmits signals as necessary

19
Repeaters
Signal attenuation or signal loss – signal degrades over distance in a
bus topology.

Repeaters clean, regenerate, and resend signals that are weakened

by long cable length.
A repeater can extend the physical length of a LAN.

20
Repeaters…

A repeater does not amplify the signal; it regenerates the signal.

When it receives a weakened or corrupted signal, it creates a copy,

bit for bit, at the original strength.

The location of a repeater on a link is vital. A repeater must be

placed so that a signal reaches it before any noise changes the
meaning of any of its bits.

A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering capability. 21

Hubs
A hub acts as the central component in a star topology, and typically contains
4, 8, 16 or even more different ports for connecting two or more computers or
other hubs.

Hubs regenerate and retransmit network signals

Hubs propagate signals through the network

They cannot filter network traffic

They cannot determine best path

They are used as network concentration points

22
Hubs…
It is similar in operation to a repeater, except that it broadcasts data received
by any of the ports to all other ports on the hub.

 Hubs can be active, passive or hybrid.

Most hubs are active; that is, they regenerate and retransmit signals in the
same way as a repeater does. Because hubs usually have 4 to 16 ports for
network computers to connect to, they are sometimes called multiport
repeaters.

 Active hubs require electrical power to run.

23
 Hubs…
Some types of hubs are passive. They act as connection points and do not
amplify or regenerate the signal; the signal passes through the hub.

 Passive hubs do not require electrical power to run.

24
Bridges
• Designed to create two or more LAN segments, each of which is a separate
collision domain.
• A bridge connects dissimilar networks (different cabling and topologies)
together.
• Bridges, like switches, can learn the MAC(media access control) address of
each of the hosts connected to them and use that address to control traffic to
each of the host’s ports.
• Bridges, however, are slower than switches, so they have been largely replaced
by switches as a device that is used to segment traffic.

25
 Bridges…
Bridges maintain a MAC address table for both segments they are connected
to.
Frame filtering
If the frame is addressed to a MAC address on the local side of the bridge, it is
not forwarded to the other segment.
For example in Figure15.5,two LANs are connected by a bridge. If a frame
destined for station 712B13456142 arrives at port1, the bridge consults its table
to find the departing port. According to its table, frames for 7l2B13456142
leave through port1; therefore, there is no need for forwarding, and the frame
is dropped.

26
 Routers…
• Determine the most efficient path for a packet to take.

• Send the packet to the right address and make sure that it does not go to where
it is not needed.

27
 Routers…
Routers first determine whether the traffic belongs on their network; then they
deliver the traffic that belongs on their network to the appropriate network hosts and
forward the traffic that does not belong on their network to another router.

Can not forward unroutable protocols.

Provide more security.

Support more complex routing protocols such as RIP and OSPF.

Some routers may also connect two networks that use different layer 2 protocols.
These routers incorporate the functionality of a bridge and are called brouters. 28
 Brouters

• Have the best features of both routers and bridges.

• Can be configured to pass the unroutable protocols by imitating a

bridge.

• Can be configured not to passing broadcast storms by acting as a

router for other protocols.

• Understand frames and packets.

29
Gateways
• A gateway is a device used to connect networks using different protocols.

• In order to communicate with a host on another network, an IP host must be configured with
a route to the destination network.

• If a configuration route is not found, the host uses the gateway (default IP router) to transmit
the traffic to the destination host.

• The default t gateway is where the IP sends packets that are destined for remote networks.

• If no default gateway is specified, communication is limited to the local network.

• A gateway normally operates in all five layers of the Internet or seven layers of OSI model.

30
 Network Interface Cards
• Network interface cards, usually referred to as NICs, act as the physical
interface or connection between the computer and the network cable.

• Every workstation and server will contain at least one NIC.

• NICs contain the electronic components that establish and control network
communications.

• The cards are installed in an expansion slot in each computer and server on the
network.

31
 NIC…
The role of the NIC is to:-
Prepare data from the computer for the network cable.
Send the data to another computer.
Control the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system.
Receive incoming data from the cable and translate it into bytes that can
be understood by the computer's central processing unit (CPU).

32
NIC…
After the NIC has been installed, the network cable is attached to
the card's port to make the actual physical connection between the
computer and the rest of the network.
NICs are usually specific to a particular type of cabling – for
example, a NIC may have either an RJ45 connector or a BNC
connector.
The most common network interface connections are
Ethernet cards and
wireless adapters.

33
 Network
Transmission
Media
Transmission Media
• For communication to take place, there has to be a connection
between devices.
• This is the channel over which a message travels.
• Encoding is different for each type, i.e. electrical impulses, light pulses, wave
patterns
Communication
Media

Guided Media
Unguided Media

Twisted Pair Coaxial Fibre Microwave Radio Infrared

Optics Frequency
35
waves
 Guided Media

Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fibre Optics

Twisted Pair Cables

• Consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in

a regular spiral pattern
• Each wire is identified by its colour combination.
They are used for communication in Ethernet and
telephone networks
• Compared to other commonly used guided
transmission media (coaxial cable, optical fiber),
twisted pair is limited in distance, bandwidth, and
Twisted Pair Cables

Green
White/Green
Orange
White/Orange
Brown
White/Brown
Blue
White/Blue
 Types of Twisted Pair Cables

UTP is ordinary telephone wire.

STP cables are similar to UTP
Typically wrapped inside a plastic cover (for
mechanical protection). cables, except there is a metal foil or
This is the least expensive. braided-metal-mesh cover that
However UTP is subject to external encases each pair of insulated wires
electromagnetic interference, including
interference from nearby twisted pair and from
noise generated in the environment.
 Twisted Pair Connectors

RJ-45 RJ-11
 Twisted Pair Connectors

RJ-45 Wall
Connector
RJ-45 Port
 Categories of Twisted Pair Cables
• Category 1 - used for telephone communication. Not good for data communication

• Category 2 - suitable for transmission data up to 4 Megabits per seconds (4Mbps)

• Category 3 - can transmit data at speed up to 10Mbps

• Category 4 - can support data up to 16Mbps

• Category 5 - used in networks with speed up to 100Mbps

• Category 5e - can support data at speed up to 1000Mbps or 1Gbps (Gigabits bits per
seconds)
• Category 6, 6a, 7 - up to 10Gbps
 Coaxial Cables
Made up of a copper conductor.

Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances and support more
stations on a shared line than twisted pair.
Noise immunity is better than twisted pair
Commonly used for TV transmission

44
 Data can be transmitted at high speed
Advantages
of Co-axial It has better shielding as compared to
Cable twisted pair cable

It provides higher bandwidth

Disadvantage It is more expensive as compared to twisted
s of Co-axial pair cable.
Cable
If any fault occurs in the cable causes the
failure in the entire network
 Fiber Optics Cable
 Uses light signals to transmit data
 Unlike copper cable, the signals on fibre optic cable are not subject to the problems of
attenuation, or crosstalk.
 This greatly increases the potential transmission distance.
 In addition fibre optic cable is more secure than copper wire.
 Fibre optic cable is generally more expensive than copper cables
 The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring
 Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires
 Greater Bandwidth

The advantages of
fibre optic cable
over copper Faster speed
(Twisted and
Coaxial)

Longer distances
Unguided Media

Radio Frequency Microwave Infrared waves

 Radio Frequency
oAlso known as radio waves
oUsed for long distance communication
oCan penetrate walls
oUsed in wireless routers, Bluetooth, and
smart phones
 Microwaves
o Microwaves transmits in a unidirectional form
o The receiver must be placed outside of the
building to get a clear line of communication
o There are two types of microwaves namely:
Terrestrial and Satellite
o Used in wireless LAN, cellular phones and
satellite networks
Infrared Transmission
• Used for short range communication, mostly used in TV/DVD
remote controls, wireless mouse, wireless printers and wireless
keyboards.

• It operates at a frequency of 300GHz to 400GHz.

• It cannot penetrate walls like microwaves.

• Infrared waves are immune to interference.

 Comparison Between Radio Waves, Microwaves and Infrared

  Radio Waves Microwave Infrared

Direction Omni-directional Unidirectional Unidirectional

Frequency Range 3kHz – 1 GHz 1 GHz – 300GHz 300GHz – 400GHz

Communication Long distance Long distance Short distance

communication communication communication

Penetration Can penetrate walls Cannot penetrate Cannot penetrate

 Network Software
• There are wide range of software applications used in a network
environment.
• They are used to manage, troubleshoot, and ensure the smooth operation of
a computer network.
• Network software can also be defined as any software application that can
be hosted on a network;
• This allows multiple users to use the software rather than a standalone
software that is deployed on a personal computer that can only be accessed
by a single user.
Network Operating Systems
• NOS are specialized computer software that are used in
workstations, personal computers, routers, switches, and other
devices that are used in network management.
• They allow computers to share resources like files, printers,
database, and internet.
Network Browsers
• These are computer programs or software applications that allow
users to access information on the World Wide Web (WWW)

• A user accesses this information by typing the website address or

Uniform Resource Locator (URL) e.g., www.myaddress.com on the
address bar of the browser.
Network Protocols
Network Protocols are a conventional rule that determine by that
means data are exchanged in a computer network.
It was necessary to set these protocols because network devices
were produced by different manufacturers.
 These protocols enable devices to interact with one another. 
However, these protocols operate at separate layers on the OSI
model.
 Network Standards
Network standards refers to rules required by different and diverse
network technologies to interoperate with each other.
This ensures that consumers are not locked with one manufacturer
Types of Standards
Network Security
• These are measured taken to secure your network and network
connectivity.
• Network security measures help to prevent unauthorized access
and use of a network and protect the data stored on the network.
• Some networks like public internet access are free, while others
can be restricted to external users.
 Network Security Measures in a LAN
• Authentication – involves passwords, PIN, secret codes, OTP (One Time Passwords).

• MAC filtering – Here, the network administrator decides which device can access the network using their MAC

addresses.

• Firewalls – inspects inbound and outbound traffic and decides which traffic to grant or deny access based on some

security rules. A firewall can decide to block traffic coming from this network 192.168.100.0/24 or traffic coming

from www.google.com

• Frequent updates of your devices – Frequent updates ensures the latest security updates are installed

• Provide frequent backup on important data – in case of network failure, you can restore the previous data you

have backed up.

• Physically secure your network devices – sometimes your network can be attacked physically. An attacker can
OSI Reference and TCP/IP
Model

61
Objectives

Understand the TCP/IP Model and the OSI Model

Compare OSI Model with TCP/IP Model

62
 The OSI and TCP/IP Model
There two common network models
1. OSI Reference model
2. TCP/IP model
OSI “Open Systems Interconnection".
TCP/IP “transport control protocol/internet protocol”

63
 OSI Reference model

It is a reference model that helps us understand how data gets from one user’s
computer to another.

OSI describes how the different software and hardware components involved
in a network communication should divide labor and interact with one another.

In the OSI model, the specification needed are contained in 7

different layers that interact with each other.
 The OSI Reference Model…
Benefits of using a layered model:
• Serves as an outline of rules for how protocols can be used to
allow communication between computers.
• Assists in protocol design
• Provides a common language
• Each layer has its own function and provides support to other
layers.
• Fosters competition (different vendors can work together)

65
OSI Reference Model…

66
Overview & functions of each layer
Know the layers in order!
 Gives end-user applications access to network resources
 Where is it on my computer? Workstation or Server Service in MS Windows

• Insure data is readable by receiving system; Format of data, Data structure

• Allow apps to maintain an ongoing session, establish connection b/n nodes

• Provides reliable data delivery. Concerned with transportation issues.It’s the TCP in TCP/IP
• Receives info from upper layers and segments it into packets

• Provides connectivity and best path selection. Example IP from TCP/IP

• Places data and retrieves it from the physical layer and provides error
detection capabilities
The physical layer is responsible for the movement of individual bits from one
node to the next.
67
 TCP/IP Model
The late-60s The Defense Advance Research Projects Agency
(DARPA) originally developed Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) to interconnect various defense
department computer networks.

The Internet, an International Wide Area Network, uses TCP/IP to

connect networks across the world.

68
 Layers with TCP/IP Model

1
69
 Protocols of TCP/IP Reference Model
Application layer: Transport layer:
• DHCP, DNS, FTP, HTTP(S) • TCP
• IMAP, POP, SMTP • UDP/User datagram protocol
• NNTP, NTP, RIP, SNMP
• SSH, SSL, Telnet
Link layer:
Internet layer:
•ARP
IP •OSPF
• IPv4 •PPP
• IPv6 •MAC (Ethernet, FDDI, Token Ring)
ICMP
IGMP

70
 Comparing TCP/IP and OSI Model
Know these layers and the comparison compare between the two models

71