Introduction

By Daniel M. (MSc in Medical physiology)

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

Objectives

At the end of this, students will be able to:

1. Explain homeostasis.
2.Discuss negative & positive feed back mechanism.
3. Discuss about control system
4.Intracellular connections and Communications
5.Body fluid compartments

06/08/2023
Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)
Introduction

What is Physiology
 The term physiology literally means study of nature /knowledge
of nature (Greek: physio = nature; logia=study)
 Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of a living
organism and its component parts, including all its chemical and
physical processes.
 It is sometimes called the science of regulation of physiologic
parameters of the body.
 It is the study of mechanical, physical and biochemical
properties of living organisms.
06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)
 Fields of Physiology
 An important part of physiology is understanding how different parts
of the body are controlled, how they interact, and how they adapt to
changing conditions.
 Fields of physiology range from simple viral physiology, bacterial
physiology, cellular physiology to the most complex human
physiology.
 Human physiology is the study of function of human body parts (cells,
tissues, organs & organ systems)

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Historical Background

William Harvey (1628)

Laid the foundation of physiology by describing correctly about the
“circulation of blood” in human body.
• Described that the heart pumps blood, arteries transport oxygenated
blood, exchange of substances occur at the systemic capillaries and
veins return deoxygenated blood.
For this reason he is known to be the father of physiology.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Cont.
Claude Bernard Walter Cannon
The great French physiologist in
the 19th century, introduced our Another great physiologist
modern physiology thought called of the 1st half of 19th
ECF that surrounds the cell.
century
He called ECF is the internal
Termed the maintenance of
environment (Milieu interieur) of
the body which remains remarkably constant conditions in the
constant despite changing ECF as homeostasis.
conditions in the external
environment.
06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)
Homeostasis
• Maintenance of static or constant conditions in the internal
environment (ECF).
• Essentially all organs of the body perform their functions that help to
maintain constant conditions in the ECF.
Lungs maintain the normal concentration of respiratory gases in
blood.
CVS transports required substances & removes waste products.
Kidneys maintain constant ionic concentration
GIS provides nutrients.
06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)
 Cont.
•Homeostasis in a general sense refers to:
• stability, balance or equilibrium.
•Maintaining a stable internal environment requires constant
monitoring & adjustments as conditions change.
•Adjustment of physiological systems within the body is
called homeostatic regulation; which involves 3 parts or
mechanisms:
• receptor, control center & effector

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Cont.

1. Receptor
• receives information that something in the environment
is changing.
2. Control center or integration center
• receives & processes information from the receptor.
3. Effector
• responds to the commands of the control center by
either opposing or enhancing the stimulus.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Cont.
Homeostatic regulation is an ongoing process that
continually works to restore & maintain homeostasis.
For example
in regulating body temperature there are temperature
receptors in the skin,
which communicate information to the brain, which is
the control center, and
the effector is our blood vessels and sweat glands.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Cont.
Homeostatically regulated variables
• Body Temperature
• Blood Composition
• ions, sugars, proteins, water, O2 and CO2 , PH &
Osmolality
• Blood Pressure, Cardiac Output, Cardiac Rate
• Respiratory Rate and depth
• Secretions of Endocrine Glands
• Rate of intracellular chemical reactions

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Function of homeostasis

1) Maintaining the underlying principle of physiology

Physiology is concerned with how body systems
contribute to homeostasis and benefit from
homeostasis.
2) Means of survival
It allows an organism to function effectively in a broad
range of environmental conditions.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Input: 4
3 Information sent
Control Output:
along afferent center Information sent along
efferent pathway to
pathway to

Receptor (sensor) Effector

2
Change 5
detected
by receptor Response of effector feeds
back to influence
magnitude of stimulus and
Stimulus: I mb returns variable to
Produces
alan homeostasis
1 ce
change
in variable Variable (in homeostasis)
I mb
alan
ce

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Control Systems of Homeostasis

• The nervous system Hormone

and the endocrine
system are the two Nerve Impulse
controlling bodies of
homeostasis
Receptor
NTs
R
Effector cell

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 The nervous regulatory mechanism
 The NS is composed of 3 major components the sensory,
integrative and motor portion.
 The sensory/receptor/ detects any change in the body
(BGC, BT, BP, pain etc) and send impulse to the brain &
spinal cord (CNS).
 The CNS associate the information store some, generate
thought and send appropriate response to the effecter
organs (muscle + glands) through the motor system.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 The hormonal regulatory mechanism
• Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine
glands, & transported in blood to the target organs (gland).
E.g. If ↓[Ca2+] PTH kidney, bone & intestine to[Ca2+]

If ↓[Na+] Aldosteron  kidney & intestine to[Na+]

• An organism is said to be in homeostasis when its internal
environment contains an optimum amount of:
• nutrients, gases, electrolytes,
• water, hormones, enzymes & temperature.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Disturbances of homeostasis
• Deviations from normal ranges = Pathology
• Hypo/ Hyperthermia ….. ↓or↑ Temperature
• Hypo/ Hypercapnia ….. ↓or↑ PCO2
• Acidosis/Alkalosis ….. ↓or↑ PH
• Hypoxia/ Hyperoxia …. ↓or↑ PO2
• Hypo/ Hypercalcemia …. ↓or↑ Ca 2+
• Hypo/ Hyperglycemia … ↓or↑ Glucose

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Control of homeostasis

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Feedback control system
• The body organs receive information (feedback) about the
extent of their activities through the regulatory mechanisms
(NS or ES).
• These feedback systems alter the function of organs by
increasing or decreasing their activities.
• There are two types of feed back mechanisms:
1. Negative feedback mechanism
2. Positive feedback mechanism

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 1. The Negative Feedback Mechanism
• It works by producing an effect which opposes the
previous condition (the initiating stimulus) of the organ.
• Nature of Most Control Systems
Example
- ↑PCO2 in the blood, the NFM stimulates Pulmonary
ventilation rate which has an effect of ↓PCO2 in blood to
normal.
- If the BP falls too low, a series of responses come into
operation that elevates BP returning it towards normal
level.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Cont.
• Most homeostatic mechanisms of the body are NFM.
E.g. Control of ABP, BGL & BT˚
• In this process the effects are opposite (or negative) to the
initial stimulus.
• The NFM is a mechanism that opposes or counter acts the
deviation of a controlled variable from its normal value
(range/average).

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Blood glucose regulation (NFM)

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 2. The Positive Feedback Mechanism
• It works by producing an effect which enhances or
repeats the same action like that of the starting
stimulus.
• Can Sometimes Cause Vicious Cycles and Death
• PFM can sometimes be useful. Such as:
• LH surge during ovulation, Blood clotting
• During child birth (labor), uterine contraction is
enhanced as the head of the baby stretches the
cervix.
• Generation & propagation of the action potential.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Uterine contractions during parturition (PFM)

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Intracellular Connections and Communications

• ICCC: means it is the connection or communication created by

cells to transfer important materials in between them.
• Points of contact between two adjacent plasma membranes are
called cell junctions. There are 3- types of cell junction:
1. Tight (occluding) junctions: form fluid tight seals between cells
2. Desmosomes (anchoring junctions): fasten cells together
3. Gap (communicating) junctions: permit electrical signals to pass.
06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)
 Cont.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Cont.
Desmosomes 
• Are protein attachments between adjacent cells.
• Inside the plasma membrane, a desmosome bears a disk-
shaped structure from which protein fibers extend into
the cytoplasm.
• Act like spot welds to hold together tissues that undergo
considerable stress (such as skin or heart muscle).

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Cont.
Tight junctions 
• Are tightly stitched seams between cells.
• Prevent movement of material between the cell.
• Are common among epithelial cells that line the
stomach, intestine, and urinary bladder.
• where materials are required to pass through cells
(rather than intercellular spaces) to penetrate the
bloodstream.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Cont.
Gap junctions 
• Are narrow tunnels between cells that consist of proteins
called connexons which allow only the passage of ions &
small molecules.
• Permit electrical or chemical signals to pass from cell to
cell.
• It allows the rapid spread of AP from one cell to the next
in the nervous system & muscle.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Body fluid compartments
• Body fluid:
• Refers to the body water & its dissolved substances.
• An average adult comprises 60% of the body fluid.
And those preterm and term babies could have 70%-
80% of total body water.
• The total body water in average adult is around 42L and
infant can have approximately 2.6L
 28L & 1.2 L found in the ICF in adults & infants R.

 14L &1.4L in the ECF in adults & infants R.

ICF< ECF in infants. But the revers is true for adults.
06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)
06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)
 Potential spaces containing body fluid
• Lymph in the lymphatic vessels
• CSF in the brain ventricles & central canal of the spinal cord
• Synovial fluid in joints
• Intraocular fluid, aqueous humor & vitreous body in the eye
• Endolymph & perilymph in the inner ears
• Pleural, pericardial, peritoneal fluids
• Glomerular filter in the kidney.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Body fluid functions
1. Transportation
2. Wastes removal
3. Protection
e.g. CSF, amniotic fluid, synovial fluid & tear
4. Media for cellular metabolism
5. Regulate body temperature
6. Sample source for experiment

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Factors affecting total body water
• Age:
• Infants have the highest amount of water up to 75% of
body weight. The percentage decreases with age.
• Obesity:
• Since fat is basically free of water, lean people have a
greater proportion of water than fat people.
• Gender (sex):
• Adult males have relatively greater proportion of
water than female, since females have more
subcutaneous fat than males.

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)

 Thank you!!!!!

06/08/2023 Daniel M. ( MSc. Medical Physiology)