CHAPTER TWO

Transformer
Introduction
What is a transformer ?
 It is a stationary electrical device that transfers
electrical power from one circuit to another by magnetic
coupling.
It does so without change of frequency and without any
moving parts.
Transformer works only with AC .
There are two or more stationary electric circuits that
are coupled magnetically.

1
 Why do we need transformers?
 The most important tasks performed by transformers are:-
a. Changing voltage and current levels in electrical power
systems
b. Matching source and load impedances for maximum
power transfer
c. Electrical isolation (isolating one circuit from another)

2
Cont….

3
 Transformer Classification

 In terms of the number of phases

1- single phase transformer
2- poly phase transformer

4
 Cont…
 In terms of their function
1 - Power transformer
2 - Distribution transformer
3 - Measuring transformers
A) Voltage transformer
B) Current transformer
4 - Autotransformer- Tapped autotransformer

5
Power Transformer
 It is a power transformer
connected to the output of
a generator and used to
step its voltage up to the
transmission level.

6
 Power Transformer

 The term power transformer is used to refer to those

transformers used between the generator and the
distribution circuits, and these are usually rated at 500 kVA
and above.
 Power transformers are available for step-up operation,
primarily used at the generator and referred to as generator
step-up (GSU) transformers, and for step-down operation,
mainly used to feed distribution circuits.
 Generator step-up transformers, used in power plants,
receive electrical energy at generator voltage and increase
it to a higher voltage for transmission lines.
 The power transmission at high voltages values of
132kv,230kv ,220kv ,400kv or 500kv.etc
7
 Distribution transformer
 It is a transformer
converting the distribution
voltage down to the final
level.

8
 Distribution transformer
 Transformers smaller than 500 kVA are generally
called distribution transformers. Pole-top and small,
pad-mounted transformers that serve residences and
small businesses are typically distribution
transformers.
 A step-down transformer receives energy at a higher
voltage and delivers it at a lower voltage for
distribution to various loads.
 The usual consumer voltage requirement is 220v or
400v.

9
  Measuring transformers
A)Voltage Transformer
 Voltage transformers are used where the voltage of an
AC circuit exceeds 750 V as it is not possible to
provide adequate insulation on measuring instruments
for voltage more than this.

10
 B)Current Transformer

Current transformer is used to measure high current.

 As the name suggests, these transformers are used in
conjunction with the relevant instruments such as
ammeters, voltmeters, watt meters and energy meters

11
 Autotransformer :- tapped autotransformer
Transformers having only one winding are called
autotransformers,
An autotransformer has the usual magnetic core but
only one winding, which is common to both the primary
and secondary circuits.

12
 According to transformer design or
construction
 Based on the construction
transformer are two types
a) Shell type transformer
- In this type, the laminated
insulated sheet iron core
a) shell-type transformer
surrounds the copper
windings.
b) Core type transformer.
- In this type, the copper
windings surround the
laminated sheet iron core.
b) Core-type transformer
13
 The Magnetic Circuit

 A magnetic circuit or core of a transformer is

designed to provide a path for the magnetic field,
which is necessary for induction of voltages between
windings.
 A path of low reluctance (i.e., resistance to magnetic
lines of force), consisting of thin silicon, sheet steel
laminations, is used for this purpose
 In addition to providing a low reluctance path for the
magnetic field, the core is designed to prevent
circulating electric currents within the steel itself.
Circulating currents, called eddy currents, cause
heating and energy loss
14
 The two common arrangements of the magnetic path
and the windings are shown in figure below
 A section of both primary and secondary windings are
wound on each leg of the core, the low voltage
winding is wound next to the core, and the high
voltage winding is wound over the low voltage.

15
Three-Phase Core Form and Three-Phase Shell Form

16
 In terms of cooling
 The cooling of a transformer depends upon the application.
Transformers intended for indoor use are primarily of the dry type but
can also be liquid immersed. For outdoor use, transformers are usually
liquid immersed
1)Air Cooling For Dry Type Transformers
-It is used for transformers that use voltages below 25KV.
a) Air natural Type (A.N.)
- This type of Transformer Cooling method applies to dry type transformer of
small rating.
- As power ratings increase, transformers are often cooled by forced-air cooling.
b) Air Forced type (A.F.).
- The air is forced on to the tank surface to increase the rate of heat dissipation.
- The fans are switched on when the temperature of the winding increases above
permissible level

17
2) Cooling For Oil Immersed Transformers
a) Oil Natural Air Natural Type (O.N.A.N.)
- This type of Transformer cooling is widely used for
oil filled transformers up to about 30MVA.
- Heat is transferred from transformer windings and
core to the oil and
- The heated oil is cooled by the natural air.
- Cooling area is increased by providing the cooling
tubes.

18
Oil Natural Air Natural Transformer Cooling

19
b) Oil Natural Air Forced Type (O.N.A.F.)
- In higher rating transformers where the heat
dissipation is difficult
- This type of cooling is used.
- Fans are used to forced and air blast on radiators.

20
c) Oil Forced Air Forced Type (O.F.A.F.)
- Oil Natural Air Forced type of cooling is not adequate
to remove the heat caused by the losses.
- Transformers above 60 MVA employ a combination
of Forced Oil and Forced Air Cooling.

21
 d)Oil Forced Water Forced (O.F.W.F.)
- This type of cooling is provided for very large transformers
which have ratings of some hundreds of MVA
- This type of transformers is used in large substations and
power plants.

22
The essential elements of a transformer are
a)Two coils having mutual inductance wound on a laminated steel core.
Many transformers have separate coils and contain many turns of wire .
The winding receiving electrical energy from the source is called the
primary winding.
The winding which receives energy from the primary winding, via the
magnetic field, is called the “secondary” winding.
Either the high- or low-voltage winding can be the primary or the
secondary.
b)The two coils are insulated from each other and magnetic core.
A magnetic circuit or core of a transformer is designed to provide a path
for the magnetic field, which is necessary for induction of voltages
between windings.
Special paper and wood are used for insulation and internal structural
support
.
23
 Cont…
c) A suitable container for the assembled core and
windings.
d) A suitable medium for insulating the core and its
windings from the container.
e) Suitable brushings for insulating and bringing out the
terminals of windings from the container

24
 Accessories Of Transformer
Conservator
This is an expansion tank. It function is to keep the
transformer tank full of oil irrespective whether
expansion or contraction of oil take place.
 It mounted above the transformer and connected to the
tank by a pipe.
Temperature gauge
This indicates temperature of the latest oil in the tank. It
is connected to an alarm.
Oil gauge
This indicates the level of the oil in the tank.
 Sometimes it is provided with the alarm contracts when
the oil level falls down below a minimum level, contacts
close and give an alarm. 25
Buckholtz relay
 It is a gas operated relay. It is located in the pipe connected to
the conservator.
 When the a fault occurs in the transformer gas bubbles are
released and these operate the relay to give an alarm signal.

Breather
 To prevent entry of moisture in to the tank, a breather with
silica gel is provided in the transformer.
 Silica gel absorbs the moisture and allows only dry air to enter
the tank
26
 Working Principle of transformer
 When one coil is connected to a source of a.c voltage
an alternating flux setup in the laminated core, most of
which is linked with the other coil in which it produces
mutually induced e.m.f. If the circuit of the second coil
is closed a current flows in it and so electrical energy is
transferred entirely magnetically from the first coil to
the second coil.

27
Hence magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil changes
which induces e.m.f. in the secondary.

28
 E.m.f Equation Of Transformer
 The induced e.m.f in a transformer is proportional to the
product of number of turns N and the rate of change of
flux.
e= N*d
dt

29
 Cont…
 The magnetic flux() increases from zero to its
maximum value m in 1/4th of a cycle.
dt=1/4f second
 Average rate of change of flux = m =4f mwb/s or
volt 1/4f
 Now rate of change of flux per turn means induced
e.m.f in volts.
Average e.m.f /turn =4f m volts
 If flux  varies sinusoidal, then r.m.s value of induced
e.m.f is obtained by multiplying the average value
with the form factor.
Form factor = r.m.s value = 1.11
Average value 30
 Cont…
 r.m.s value of e.m.f/turn = 1.11*average value
= 1.11* 4f m
= 4.44f m volt
 Now r.m.s value of the induced e.m.f in the whole of
primary winding(E1).
E1 = induced e.m.f/turn*No of primary winding.
= 4.44f N1 m = 4.44f N1BmA
 Similarly r.m.s value of e.m.f induced in secondary is
E2 = 4.44f N2 m = 4.44f N2BmA

31
 Ideal Transformers
 An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input
winding and an output winding.
 It has the following properties:
- No iron and copper losses
- No leakage fluxes
- A core of infinite magnetic permeability and of
infinite electrical resistivity
- Flux is confined to the core and winding resistances
are negligible.
 For ideal transformer E1=V1 and E2= V2
 The power in ideal transformer V1I1 =V2I2
E1/E2 =V1/V2 =N1/N2 =I2/I1
32
Ideal Transformers

33
The relationships between the input voltage and the output voltage, and between
the input current and the output current, are given by the following equations.

v p t  is t 
In instantaneous quantities  a
vs t  i p t 

vpt ist Np
  a
vst i pt Ns

Vp I
In rms quantities  s  a
Vs Ip

34
 Cont…
Np: Number of turns on the primary winding
Ns: Number of turns on the secondary winding
vp(t): voltage applied to the primary side
vs(t): voltage at the secondary side
a: turns ratio
ip(t): current flowing into the primary side
is(t): current flowing into the secondary side

35
Derivation of the Relationship

36
Power in an Ideal Transformer

37
Theory of Operation of Single-Phase Real
Transformers

 P   M   LP
 S   M   LS

fp: total average primary flux

fM : flux linking both primary and
secondary windings
fLP: primary leakage flux
fS: total average secondary flux
38
The voltage ratio across a real transformer

39
The voltage ratio across a real transformer

40
The current ratio on a transformer

41
 Magnetization Current

 When an ac power source is connected to a transformer, a

current flows in its primary circuit, even when the secondary
circuit is open circuited. This current is the current required
to produce flux in the ferromagnetic core and is called
excitation current. It consists of two components:
1. The magnetization current Im, which is the current
required to produce the flux in the transformer core.
2. The core-loss current Ih+e, which is the current required to
make up for hysteresis and eddy current losses
42
The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
 When an ac power source is connected to the primary of
a transformer, a current flows in its primary circuit, even
when there is no current in the secondary.
The transformer is said to be on no-load. If the secondary
current is zero, the primary current should be zero too.
However, when the transformer is on no-load, excitation
current flows in the primary because of the core losses and
the finite permeability of the core.

43
44
 Impedance Transformation through a Transformer
 Consider the following circuit, where a load impedance ZL is
connected in the secondary winding. The RMS values of
current and voltage in the secondary winding are related to the
impedance by

Substituting for V2 and I2

Rearranging this equation, and substituting a = N1/N2,

the impedance seen by the source, Z’L is given by:

45
 Cont…
 i.e., When a load impedance ZL is connected across the
secondary winding terminals, the AC source connected on the
input side sees the load impedance magnified by the factor
a2.We say that the load impedance is reflected or referred to
the primary side by the square of the turns ratio a.

Fig5 Load impedance as seen by the source

46
 Cont…
 This circuit can be simplified as follows

Fig 6 Simplified circuit

47
 Cont…
 This circuit can be simplified as follows

Fig 6 Simplified circuit

48
 Cont…
 In a similar manner, it can be shown that if an impedance is
connected on the source side of the circuit (as shown below),
the load sees it changed by a factor of (1/ a2).

Fig 7 Source impedance as seen by the load

49
 Cont…

 If we look at this circuit from the load side (i.e., as seen by the
load), the voltage of the source and the impedance appear
changed as shown below

Fig 8 Simplified circuit

50
 Impedance Matching
 A very important application of transformers is as an
impedance matching device using the concept of “reflected
load”.
 Recall that the maximum power transfer theorem states that a
power source delivers maximum power to the load when the
load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the source.
This can be accomplished by using a transformer to match the
two resistances

Fig 9 Transformer application for impedance matching 51

 Cont…
 The maximum power transfer from an active device like an
amplifier to an external device like a speaker will occur when
the impedance of the external device matches that of the
source. Transformers are used for this purpose. Improper
impedance matching can lead to excessive power use,
distortion, and noise problems.

52
 Cont…
 Thus, by choosing the appropriate turns ratio for the
transformer in equation (a), the effective load resistance R’ L
can be made equal to the internal resistance of the source, no
matter what value the actual load resistance RL takes. This
process is called impedance matching. A practical example of
impedance matching in given below.
 For example, if the internal resistance of the source is 75Ω,
and the resistance of the load is 300Ω, a transformer with turns
ratio of 1:2 can be used for impedance matching as shown
below.

Fig 10 Impedance matching 53

 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
The losses that occur in transformers have to be accounted
for in any accurate model of transformer behavior.
1. Copper (I2R) losses. Copper losses are the resistive
heating losses in the primary and secondary windings of
the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the
current in the windings.
2. Eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are resistive
heating losses in the core of the transformer. They are
proportional to the square of the voltage applied to the
transformer.

54
3. Hysteresis losses. Hysteresis losses are associated with the
rearrangement of the magnetic domains in the core during
each half-cycle. They are a complex, nonlinear function of
the voltage applied to the transformer.
4. Leakage flux. The fluxes which escape the core and pass
through only one of the transformer windings are leakage
fluxes. These escaped fluxes produce a self-inductance in the
primary and secondary coils, and the effects of this
inductance must be accounted for.

55
 The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer
 Cooper losses are modeled by the resistors Rp and Rs
 Leakage flux in a primary winding produces the voltage:
ELp(t)=NdФLP/dt

Since much of the leakage flux pass through air, and air has a constant
reluctance that is much higher than the core reluctance, the primary coil’s
leakage flux is

56
 The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer
 Recognizing that the self-inductance of the primary coil is

The induced voltages are:

Primary coil:
Secondary coil:

The leakage flux can be modeled by primary and secondary

inductors.
The magnetization current can be modeled by a reactance XM
connected across the primary voltage source.
The core-loss current can be modeled by a resistance RC connected
across the primary voltage source.
Both currents are nonlinear; therefore, XM and RC are just 57
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer
 The transformer’s equivalent circuit

58
Cont…

59
Approximate equivalent circuit of a transformer

60
 Transformer Tests
It is possible to experimentally determine the parameters of
the approximate the equivalent circuit. An adequate
approximation of these values can be obtained with only two
tests….
- Open-circuit test
- Short-circuit test
Open-circuit test
 Transformer's secondary winding is open-
circuited.
 Primary winding is connected to a full-rated
line voltage.
 The primary current on no load is usually
less than 5% of the full load. So copper loss
is very small than the primary loss(I2R)or full
load and there fore can be neglected. Hence
the wattmeter readings give the core loss Pi
of the transformer.
 Input voltage, input current, and input power
to the transformer are measured. 61
 Short circuit test
 Transformer's secondary winding
is short-circuited
 Primary winding is connected to a
fairly low-voltage source.
 The input voltage is adjusted until
the current in the short-circuited
windings is equal to its rated
value.
 Input voltage, input current, and
input power to the transformer are
measured.
 Excitation current is negligible,
since the input voltage is very low.
Thus, the voltage drop in the
excitation branch can be ignored.
All the voltage drop can be
attributed to the series elements in
the circuit

62
Determining the values of components

63
Determining the values of components

64
Determining the values of components

65
Determining the values of components

66
 Efficiency of transformer
 The efficiency of transformer depends on loss.
 The loss occurring in a transformer can be divided into two
parts.
a) Copper loss in primary and secondary winding as
(I21R1 +I22 R2 ).
 It depends upon the square of the load current.
b) Iron losses in the core due to hysteresis and eddy currents.
Hysteresis loss
 The magnetic core of a transformer is subjected to an
alternating magnetization. So far each cycle of e.m.f a
hysteresis loop is traced out.
 Hysteresis loss per second(Ph)in watts is given by the
following expression.
67
 Cont…
Ph = hBm1.6fV
Where:- h = Hysteresis coefficient.
Bm = Maximum flux density in the core(T).
f = Supply frequency in Hz
V = Volume of the core in m3
Hysteresis loss depends upon

 The material used to build the core

 Maximum flux density in the core
 Supply frequency
 Volume of the core material
68
Eddy current loss
 The eddy current loss is due to circulating currents setup
in the iron lamination the magnetic flux being cut by the
core. Since the e.m.fs induced in the core are proportional
to the square the frequency and the flux.
 So eddy current loss ( Pe) will be given by the expression.
Pe = keB2mf2 t2 W/m2
Where:- ke = coefficient
t = thickness of lamination
 So it depends up on
- Maximum flux density
- Core material
- Supply frequency
- The thickness of lamination 69
 Cont…
 for a given frequency, the power losses in the core
(iron losses) increase with the voltage e1 (or e2).
 These losses cannot be allowed to exceed a limit,
beyond which the temperature of the hottest spot in
the transformer will rise above the point that will
decrease dramatically the life of the insulation.
 Limits therefore are put to E1 and E2 (with a ratio of
N1/N2), and these limits are the voltage limits of the
transformer.
 Similarly, winding losses(Copper loss) have to be
limited, resulting in limits to the currents I1 and I2.
 
70
 Cont…
 Under rated conditions, i.e. maximum current and
voltage, in typical transformers the magnetizing current
I0 does not exceed 1% of the current in the transformer.
 Under maximum (rated) current, total voltage drops on
the winding resistances and leakage inductances do not
exceed in typical transformers 6% of the rated voltage.
Efficiency()= Power output(Pout)
Power input(Pin)

= Power output = Pout

power out +power loss Ploss+Pout

71
Rating of transformer.
 As seen cooper loss of a transformer depends on the
current and iron loss on voltage. Hence total loss of
transformer depends on volt-ampere(VA) and not on
phase angle between current and voltage i.e. it is
independent on load power factor. That is why rating
of transformer is in KVA and not in KW.
 A transformer is described by its rated apparent
power.

72
 Transformer Voltage Regulation
 Because a real transformer has series impedance within it, the
output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the
input voltage remains constant.
 The voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in the
magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage from no-load to
full-load.
%voltage regulation=Vs(no load)-Vs(full load)*100%
Vs(rated voltage)
%voltage regulation=Vp (no load)-Vp (full load)*100%
Vp ( rated voltage)
Where:- Vs = Secondary voltage
Vp= Primary voltage
 The purpose of voltage regulation is to determine the percentage
of voltage drop between no load and full load
73
 Parallel operation of transformers
 The operation of transformers in parallel becomes necessary
owing to the following reasons
i. With two or more transformers operating in parallel, the power
system becomes more reliable. For instance if one transformer
develops fault, it can be removed and the other transformers
can maintain the flow of power, though at a reduced level.
ii. Transformers can be switched off or on, depending upon the
power demand. In this manner, the transformer losses
decreases and the system becomes more economical and
efficient in operation.
iii. The cost of standby (spare) set is reduced when two or more
transformers are installed.

74
Conditions for satisfactory operation of transformers in parallel

1. Transformation or turn-ratios and voltage ratings are

same.
2. Polarities of the transformers are same.
3. Percentage impedances of the transformers are same.
4. Ratios of resistance to reactance are same.
5. Phase displacement between primary and secondary
windings of the transformers are the same.
6. Phase sequences of the transformers are same.

75
 Cont…

Two single-phase transformers in parallel

76
 For Single Phase Transformers
 Only the first four conditions apply as there is no phase sequence and
phase displacement due to voltage transformation.
 If the turn-ratios or voltage ratings are not the same, a circulating current
will flow even at no-load.
 If the percent impedance or the ratios of resistance to reactance are not the
same, the sharing of load between the transformers when applied will no
longer be proportional to their KVA ratings. Hence the capacities of the
transformers can not be utilized to a full extent.
 The total capacity of two paralleled transformers that have unequal percent
impedances is expressed by the relation
ZB
Total capacity  S A  SB
ZA

Where, SA and ZA are the respective capacity and percent impedance of the
transformer of larger percent impedance and SB and ZB are the respective
capacity and percent impedance of the transformer of smaller percent
impedance. 77
 Three phase transformer

• The majority of the power generation/distribution systems in the world are

3-phase systems.
• Large scale generation of electric power is usually 3-phase at generated
voltages of 13.2 kV or somewhat higher
• The transformers for such circuits can be constructed either as a 3-
phase bank of independent identical transformers or as a single
transformer wound on a single 3-legged core (lighter, cheaper, more
efficient).
• Generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy is invariably
done through the use of three-phase systems because of its several
advantages over single-phase systems.
• As such, a large number of three-phase transformers are inducted in a 3-
phase energy system for stepping up or stepping – down the voltage as
required.
• For 3-phase up or down transformation, three units of 1-phase transformers
or one unit of 3-phase transformer may be used
78
 Three phase transformer
 When three identical units of 1-phase transformers are used as
shown in Figure a, the arrangement is usually called a bank of
three transformers or a 3-phase transformer bank.
 A single 3-phase transformer unit may employ 3–phase core-
type construction Figure b or three phase shell type
construction
Input

A B C

P P P
P S P S P S

I II III

a b c
S S S
Output

Figure (a) 3-phase transformer both windings in star; b) three-pase core-type transformer
79
 Three phase transformer
A single-unit 3-phase core-type transformer uses a
three-limbed core, one limb for each phase winding
as shown in Figure b
Actually, each limb has the L.V. winding placed
adjacent to the laminated steel core and then H.V.
winding is placed over the 1.v. winding.
Appropriate insulation is placed in between the
core and 1.v. winding and also in between the two
windings.

80
 Three-Phase Transformer Connections

Three-phase transformers may have four standard

connections
(a) Star-Delta ( Y-) (b) Delta-Star (-Y)
(c) Delta-Delta (-) (d) Star-Star (Y-Y)

81
Three-Phase Transformer Connections

82
 Star-delta (Y-) Connection
I 3aI
V
V I
3 3a
V aI

83
Star-delta (Y-) Connection

84
 Delta-Star (-Y) connection:-

 for stepping up the voltage to a aI

high level. I 3
 At the beginning of h.v.
aI V
transmission lines so that I a 3V
3
insulation is stressed to about V
3 a
57.74% of line voltage
 used as distribution
transformers

85
Delta-Star (-Y) connection:-

86
 Delta-Delta (-) Connection

I kI

V
I kI k
V
3 3

used for large l.v transformers

one transformer can be removed for maintenance purposes
while the remaining two transformers

87
Delta-Delta (-) Connection

88
 Star-Star (Y-Y) Connection
kI
V I V
3 kI V
V 3k
k

• This connection is used for small h.v transformers

• Star-star connection is rarely used in practice

89
Star-Star (Y-Y) Connection

90
 Cont…

Three-phase Voltage and Current

Phase Phase Line

Connection Line Voltage
Voltage Current Current

Star VP = VL ÷ √3 VL = √3 × VP IP = IL IL = IP

Delta VP = VL VL = VP IP = IL ÷ √3 IL = √3 × IP

91
 Paralleling Three-Phase Transformers
 
 The operation of transformers in parallel becomes necessary
owing to the following reasons :
 With two or more transformers operating in parallel, the power
system becomes more reliable. For instance if one transformer
develops fault, it can be removed and the other transformers
can maintain the flow of power, though at a reduced level.
 Transformers can be switched off or on, depending upon the
power demand. In this manner, the transformer losses
decreases and the system becomes more economical and
efficient in operation.
 The cost of standby (spare) set is reduced when two or more
transformers are installed

92
 Conditions for satisfactory operation of transformers in parallel:

1. Transformation or turn-ratios and voltage ratings are same.

2. Polarities of the transformers are same.
3. Percentage impedances of the transformers are same.
4. Ratios of resistance to reactance are same.
5. Phase displacement between primary and secondary windings of
the transformers is the same.
6. Phase sequences of the transformers are same
For Three Phase Transformers
 The same conditions hold true for three phase transformers except in this case the
questions of phase displacement and phase sequence must be considered.
 Phase sequence refers to the order in which the terminal voltages reach their
maximum values. In paralleling those terminals whose voltages reach their maximum
simultaneously are paired.
 Certain transformer connections as the Wye-delta or delta-Wye produce a phase
displacement of 30° between the line voltages of primary side and those of the
secondary side. Transformers of such connections can not run in parallel with the
transformers not having this phase displacement such as Wye-Wye, or delta-delta.
 
93
Operation of three phase transformers in parallel

94
Operation of three phase transformers in parallel

95
 Special type of transformer
Auto-transformer
 It is a transformer with one winding only, part of this being
common to both primary and secondary.
 Obviously, in this transformer the primary and secondary
are not electrically isolated from each other as in the case
with a 2-winding transformer.
 But its theory and operation are similar to those of a two-
winding transformer. Because of its one winding, it uses
less copper and hence is cheaper than the 2 – winding
transformer.
 As shown in Fig.(a), AB, is primary winding having N1
turns and BC is secondary winding having N2 turns. By
neglecting iron losses and no-load current,

96
 Cont…

Figure Step down and step up autotransformer

97
 Advantages of Auto-transformer
 It effects a saving in winding material (copper or
aluminum), since the secondary winding is part of the
primary current.
 Lower copper loss, therefore efficiency is higher than in
the two winding transformer.
 Lower leakage reactance's, lower exciting current.
 Variable output voltage can be obtained.
Disadvantages of Auto-Transformer
 There is a direct connection between the primary and
secondary sides.
 Should an open-circuit develop between points b and c, the
full mains voltage would be applied to the secondary.
 The short-circuit current is much larger than for normal two-
winding transformer 98
 Instrument Transformers

These are special type of transformers used for the

measurement of voltage, current, power and energy.
As the name suggests, these transformers are used in
conjunction with the relevant instruments such as
ammeters, voltmeters, watt meters and energy meters.
Used to reduce voltage or current to provide metering
or protection

99
 Types of Instrument Transformer

Such transformers are of two types :

1. Current Transformer (or Series Transformer)
2. Potential Transformer (or Parallel Transformer)

 Current transformers are used when the magnitude of

AC currents exceeds the safe value of current of
measuring instruments.
 Potential transformers are used where the voltage of
an AC circuit exceeds 750 V as it is not possible to
provide adequate insulation on measuring
instruments for voltage more than this.
100
 Uses of Instrument Transformer

It is used for the following three

1. To insulate the high voltage circuit from the
measuring circuit in order to protect the measuring
instruments from burning
2. To make it possible to measure the high voltage with
low range voltmeter and high current with low range
ammeter.
3. These instrument transformers are also used in
controlling and protecting circuits, to operate relays,
circuit breakers etc. The working of these
transformers are similar as that of ordinary
transformers.
101
Measurement of current by current transformer(CT)
 A current transformer is an instrument transformer
which is used to measure alternating current of large
magnitude by stepping down by transformer action.
 The primary winding of CT is connected in series
with the line in which current is to be measured and
the secondary is connected to the ammeter.

102
 Cont…
 The secondary winding has very small load
impedance which is the current coil of ammeter. The
primary side has a few number of turns and the
secondary side has large number of turns.
 The primary winding carries a full load current and
this current is stepped down to a suitable value which
is within the range of ammeter.
 The operation of current transformer differs slightly
from the power transformer. In case of current
transformer, the secondary winding has a very small
impedance or “Burden” , so the current transformer
operates on short circuit conditions.

103
 Impedance or burden of Instrument Transformer
 Burden across the secondary of an instrument
transformer is also defined as the ratio of secondary
voltage to secondary current.
ZL = secondary voltage/ secondary current
=V/I
The units of burden are ohms

104
 Core constructions Current Transformers
 In order to minimize the exciting ampere turns
required, the core must have a low reluctance and
small iron losses
 The following three types of core constructions are
generally employed :
1. Core type
2. Shell type
3. Ring type

105
 Core type
 It is rectangular form core type. The laminations are
of L shaped assembled together.
 The winding are placed on one of the shorter limbs,
with the primary usually wound over the secondary.
The main advantage of this type of core is that
sufficient space is available for insulation and is
suitable for high voltage work.

106
 Shell type
 In shell type, the windings are placed at the central
limb, thus it gives better protection to the windings.

107
 Ring type
 Ring type core is commonly used when primary
current is large. The secondary winding is distributed
round the ring and the primary winding is a single
bar.
 It is a joint less core and there is very small leakage
reactance.

108
 Types of Current Transformers
 As far as the construction of CT is concerned, these
are of following types
1. Bar type CT
 This type of CT is placed on the panel board to
measure the current of bus bars. The bus bar whose
current is to be measured is made to pass through CT.
It is of circular or ring type, on which secondary
winding is placed. The ammeter is connected in the
secondary windings.

109
 Types of Current Transformers
2. Clamp on / Tong tester
 This type of CT can be used with a single conductor. The
core of the CT can be split with the help of a trigger switch
and therefore, the core can be clamped around a live
conductor to measure the current. The single conductor acts
as a primary and the secondary is wound on the core of CT.
The ammeter is connected in the secondary. This is a portable
instrument and generally used in laboratories.

110
Measurement of voltage by voltage or potential
transformer(VT or PT)
 The primary winding is connected to the voltage side
to be measured and secondary to the voltmeter.
 The function of PT is to steps down the voltage to the
level of voltmeter.

111
 Cont…
 These are used to measure alternating high voltage by
means of low range voltmeters or for energizing the
potential coils of wattmeter and energy meters.
 These types of transformers are also used in relays
and protection schemes.
 The high voltage which is to be measured is fed to the
primary of PT, which is stepped down and is
measured by a low range voltmeter on the secondary.
 The turns of primary side are more than secondary
side.

112
 Difference between CT and PT
 The few important points regarding the difference in
the working of current transformer and potential
transformer are given below
1. The current transformer is also known as series
transformer. The secondary of CT is virtually under
short circuit conditions when the primary of CT is
energized.
The potential transformer is also known as parallel
transformer. The secondary of PT can be left open
circuited without any damage being caused either to
the transformer or to the operator.

113
 Difference between CT and PT
2. Under normal conditions, the line voltage of the PT is
nearly constant. The flux density and the exciting
current of a PT varies between small range whereas the
primary current and excitation of a CT varies over a
wide range under normal working conditions.
3. The current in the primary of CT is independent of
secondary winding conditions whereas current in the
primary of PT depends upon the secondary circuit
burden.
4. The primary winding of the PT is connected across full
line voltage, whereas the CT is connected in series with
one of the lines and therefore a small voltage exists
across its terminals. However the current transformer
carries full line current. 114
 Disadvantages of Instrument Transformer

 The only main draw back is that these instruments

can not be used in DC circuits

Difference Between Protection & Metering CTs

A 100A:5A CT is used to measure current
When A 2kA fault appears
A Metering CT will saturate producing no more than 5A
 Metering equipment is protected
A Protection CT will not saturate & try to produce 100A
 Protection equipment will react quicker

115
Cont…

116
Application of Current Transformer(CT) and voltage
transformer(VT)
The following are the applications
1. CT and VT are used in panel board of sub station or
grid station to measure the bus bar current or voltage
which is very high.
2. CT and VT are widely used in power measuring
circuits. The current or voltage coil of the wattmeter
is connected with CT or VT.
3. CT and VT are also used in power houses, sub
stations etc. in conjunction with the relays for
protection.

117
 Transformer design aspects
 Design is a creative physical realization of theoretical concepts
 Engineering design is application of science, technology and
invention to produce a machine which can perform a specific task
with optimum economy and efficiency.
 The major considerations to develop a good design are
1) Cost
2) Durability
3) Compliance with performance criteria as per the specification.
 These requirements are conflicting and usually it is difficult to meet
all of them. It is impossible to design a machine which is cheep and
is also durable at the same time. A machine which is expected to
have long life span must use high quality materials which are
expensive.

118
 Transformer design aspects
 The basic structural parts of a transformer which engineers should
design carefully are;
- Magnetic parts (iron core)
- Conductor parts (windings)
- Insulating parts (dielectrics)
- Ventilation and cooling parts(thermal)
- Mechanical parts
1. Specifications
 In order to design a transformer, a designer needs to know the following
important specifications;
1. Capacity ( power rating) of the transformer, in KVA;
2. Voltage ratings of primary and secondary windings, in KV;
3. Number of phases, 1 - phase or 3 – phase;
4. working Frequency, in Hz;
5. Type of connections in 3 – phase transformers , STAR or DELTA;
6. Tapping, if any
119
 Transformer design aspects
7. Type of iron assembly, Core or Shell type;
8. Type of transformer, Power or Distribution;
9. Operating average ambient temperature, in oC; (generally 40oC)
10. Type of cooling to be used;
a) Cooling medium; air, Oil, water
b) Circulation type; Natural, forced
c) Simple cooling, mixed cooling
11. Temperature rise above ambient, depending on insulation class;
12. Voltage regulation;
a) % or P.U. at full load at 75oC unity P.F. or 0.8 P.F. lag
b) impedance, % or P.U.
c) reactance, % or P.U.
13. No – load current;
a) Amperes
b) % 0f rated current at rated voltage and rated frequency;
14. Efficiency, in % or P.U. at full load, ½ load, ¾ load at unity P.F. and 0.8 P.F

120
2. Basic principles

• The design of di-electrical, thermal and mechanical parts is

based upon knowledge of decades experience and practice.
However, the design of both electric and magnetic circuits is
based upon well established basic laws. Induction, interaction
and alignment laws.
• Transformer action is based on induction laws where the coil
is stationary and the flux is varying.

d
e , volts Faraday ' s law
dt
d
e  N , volts for N number of turns
dt

121
 Single phase transformer components

Single phase transformer

122
Assembled single phase transformer iron core

123
 a. Single phase transformer

Let the basic quantities required for transformer design are designated as
follows;
S – output , KVA
φm - main flux, wb
Bm – max. flux density, wb/m2
δ – current density, A/m2
Agi – gross core area, m2
Ai – net core area = staking factor x gross core area, m2
Ac – area of copper in the window, m2
Aw – window area, m2
D – distance between core centers, m
d – diameter of circumscribing circle, m
Kw – window space factor
f – frequency, Hz
Et – emf per turn, v

124
 Cont…
• Np, Ns – number of turns in prim. & second. windings respectively.
• Ip, Is – current in prim. & second. windings respectively, A
• Vp, Vs – terminal voltage of prim. &second. windings, V
• ap, as – area of conductors of prim. & second. windings, m2
• li – mean length of flux path in iron, m
• Lmi – length of mean turn of transformer windings, m
• Gi – weight of active iron, kg
• Gc – weight of copper, kg
• Pi – loss in iron per kg, w (specific iron loss)
• Pc – loss in copper per kg, w (specific copper loss)

Then;

125
Cont…

126
Cont…

127
a) Rating of single phase transformers in KVA

128
b . Three phase transformers

129
Assembled iron core of a 3-phase transformer

130
3. Output equation – EMF per turn of a winding

131
Cont…

132
 Optimum Design

- A transformer may be designed to make one of the following

quantities as minimum;
i) Total volume
ii) Total weight
iii) Total cost
iV) Total losses
- In general these requirements are contradictory and normally it is
possible to satisfy only one of them.
- All these quantities vary with the ratio of φm/NI = r
- To Design for minimum cost, the cost of iron must be equal to
the cost of conductors.
- To design for minimum loss or maximum efficiency, variable
losses (I2R loss) must be equal to constant losses ( Iron loss).

133
 Cont…
• Design work can now be started by suitably choosing values of B m,
δ, and Kw and determining Ai and Aw.

4. Design of core section (limb and yoke)

• For small size transformers simple rectangular core section can be used
having circular or rectangular coils.
• As the size of the transformer increases, usually circular coils are used
because of its superior mechanical stability during short circuit situations.
• For circular coils, the shape of the core section has to be selected so that no
useful space is wasted and the amount of copper used is minimum
( minimum perimeter). This could be achieved if the core section is a circle.
• Since transformer iron cores are assembled from large number of
laminations, the approximate circular shape of the core is achieved by using
stepped core sections. (square, two stepped, three stepped, …. many stepped)

134
Cont…

135
Assembled magnetic core

136
 5. Selection of design constants

• Designing work depends on proper selection of design constants; Bm, δ, Kw and Aw.

• Choice of flux density (Bm) – depends on

1) type of iron;
hot rolled silicon steel 1.1 – 1.5 T, cold rolled silicon steel 1.5-1.7 T,
2) power rating of the transformer ;
Higher values for higher ratings, lower value for lower ratings.
3) service condition;
for power transformers higher values of Bm are selected
for distribution transformers, lower values are selected
• Note: - If we choose higher values of flux density, the net core area A i reduces,
which helps to reduce the diameter of the core and the length of the mean turn. This
results in the saving of cost of iron and copper. However, the max value of flux
density is limited by the saturation character of the selected iron type. Higher values
of Bm causes increased iron losses which may require intensive cooling.

137
 Cont…
Choice of current density (δ) – Higher values of current density helps to design
a transformer with lower dimensions. However, it is mainly limited by
- heat produced during nominal operation and efficiency of the transformer.
- type of transformer ( Power or distribution) because of different
requirement of i2r and iron losses. Permissible values can be taken from
catalogues considering cooling system to be employed.
Choice of window space factor (Kw) – It is the ratio of copper area in the
window to the total window area. The total window area includes the copper
area, the insulation and open areas for air or oil. The amount of copper and
insulation used depends on the KVA and voltage rating respectively and there
fore, the choice of Kw.
Choice of window dimensions (Aw) - Too a narrow window results in
increased height of window where distance between adjacent limbs/winding
is less. This reduces leakage reactance. If lower height is chosen, the
window width increases resulting increased distance between adjacent
limbs/windings and increased leakage reactance. Thus, height and width of
the window is taken considering desirability of leakage reactance. Usually,
Hw/W w is taken as 2 – 4. Aw = Hw x Ww
138
6. Design of windings

139
Cont…

140
 Cont…
• Choice of type of winding – There are different types of windings
employed in transformers such as cylindrical, helical, cross over,
and continuous disc type. Choice of type of winding depends on
voltage and current ratings.
Once the type is properly selected, the winding is designed to fit to
the window dimension with proper provision for cooling ducts,
insulation and clearances.
7. Design of insulation – the fundamental considerations in the design
of transformer insulation are that of voltages between different parts.
i.e. insulation
- between core and LV winding
- between LV and HV windings
- between HV windings on two consecutive limbs
- between yoke and LV as well as HV windings.
Different types of insulators like pressboard, paper, oil immersed paper,
oil, Bakelite, etc can be used 141
 Cont…
8. Design of cooling systems – For large power transformers,
tubes and radiators are employed to circulate natural or forced
cooling medium. ( air, oil, water etc.)
• In addition to the above main parts, tank and other
mechanical parts are designed as required depending on the
power and type of the transformer

142
 O U
K Y
A N
TH

143