CELL CYCLE AND

REPLICATION
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 Introduction
• The development of a single, fertilised egg cell to form
a complex, multicellular organism involves cellular
replication, growth and progressive specialisation
(differentiation) for a variety of functions.
• The fertilised egg (zygote) divides by a process known
as mitosis to produce two genetically identical
daughter cells, each of which divides to produce two
more daughter cells and so on.
• Some of these daughter cells progressively specialise
and eventually produce the terminally differentiated
cells of mature tissues, such as muscle or skin cells
 Introduction Contd.
• Most tissues however retain a population of
relatively undifferentiated cells (stem cells)
that are able to divide and replace the
differentiated cell population as required.
• The interval between mitotic divisions is
known as the cell cycle.
• All body cells divide by mitosis except for male
and female germ cells, which divide by
meiosis to produce gametes
 Introduction Contd.
• In fully developed organism, the terminally
differentiated cells of some tissues, such as the
neurones of the nervous system, lose the ability to
undergo mitosis.
• In contrast, the cells of certain other tissues, e.g. the
stem cells of gut and skin, undergo continuous cycles
of mitotic division throughout the lifespan of the
organism replacing cells lost during normal wear and
tear.
• Between these extremes are cells such as liver cells
that do not normally divide but retain the capacity to
undergo mitosis should the need arise (facultative
dividers).
 Introduction Contd.
• Cell division and differentiation are balanced
by cell death both during the development
and growth of the immature organism and in
the mature adult.
• In these circumstances, cell death occurs by a
mechanism known as apoptosis
 The cell cycle
• mitotic phase (M phase)

• a non-dividing phase (interphase),

 Howevwer it has a synthesis or S phase, when
nuclear DNA is replicated
• Between M phase and S phase is
 G1 phase ( here cells differentiate and perform
their specialised functions) G2 phase,
(here cells prepare for mitotic division) G0
phase (continuous differentiated function)
 The cell cycle
• In general, the S, G and M phases of the cell
cycle are relatively constant in duration, each
taking up to several hours to complete.
• Whereas the G1 phase is highly variable, in
some cases lasting for several days or weeks.
• The G0 phase may last for the entire lifespan of
the organism.
 Mitosis
• Division of somatic cells (all body cells except
for the germ cells) occurs in two phases.
• First, the chromosomes duplicated in S phase
are distributed equally between the two
potential daughter cells; this process is known
as mitosis.
• Second, the dividing cell is cleaved into
genetically identical daughter cells by
cytoplasmic division or cytokinesis.
 Chromosomes during mitosis
• The nuclei of all somatic cells of
an individual contain the same
fixed complement of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a
quantity called the genome.
• The DNA is arranged into
chromosomes, with each
species having a set number.
• DNA is a very large molecular
weight polymer consisting of
many deoxyribonucleotides
with a double-stranded
structure.
 Chromosomes during mitosis Contd.
• Each strand consists of a
backbone of alternating
deoxyribose S and
phosphate P moieties.
• Each deoxyribose unit is
covalently bound to a
purine or pyrimidine base,
which is in turn non-
covalently linked to a
complementary base on
the other strand, thus
linking the strands
together.
 Chromosomes during mitosis Contd.
• The bases are of four • In human cells, there
types, adenine A, are 46 chromosomes
cytosine C, thymine (the diploid number)
T and guanine G. comprising 22
• With adenine only homologous pairs,
linking to thymine the autosomes, and
and cytosine only 2 sex chromosomes,
linking to guanine, either XX in the
thus making each female or XY in the
strand male.
complementary to
the other.
 Chromosomes during mitosis Contd.
• Histologically, chromosomes are not visible
within the cell nucleus during interphase.
• During S phase, each chromosome is
duplicated.
• The resulting identical chromosomes, now
known as chromatids, remain attached to one
another at a point called the centromere.
Chromosomes during mitosis Contd.
Chromosomes during mitosis Contd
 Mitotic series
• Mitosis is a continuous process that is
traditionally divided into four phases,
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase, each stage being readily
recognisable with the light microscope.
 Prophase

1. Chromosomes first become visible within the

nucleus,
2. X-somes increasingly condensed and shortened and
the nucleoli disappear.
3. the microfilaments and microtubules of the
cytoskeleton disaggregate into their protein subunits
4. Two pairs of centrioles migrate towards opposite
poles of the cell while simultaneously a spindle of
microtubules is formed between them (interpolar
microtubules).
5. Dissolution of the nuclear envelope marks the end of
prophase.
 Metaphase.
1. the mitotic spindle moves into the nuclear
area and each duplicated chromosome
becomes attached, at a site called the
kinetochore,
2. Other microtubules attach the chromosome
arms to the spindle.
3. The chromosomes then become arranged in
the plane of the spindle equator, known as
the equatorial or metaphase plate.
 Anaphase.

1. The mitotic spindle becomes lengthened by

addition of tubulin subunits to its interpolar
microtubules
2. astral microtubules joining the centrosome
to the cell cortex shorten.
3. The centrioles are pulled apart and the
chromatids of each duplicated chromosome
are drawn to opposite ends of the spindle,
 Telophase.
1. The chromosomes begin to uncoil and to regain their
interphase conformation
2. The nuclear envelope reassembles and nucleoli again
become apparent.
3. The process of cytokinesis also takes place during
telophase.
4. The plasma membrane around the spindle equator
becomes indented to form the cleavage furrow,
5. Production of two cells of equal size (2 doughter cells)
6. In early G1 phase, the mitotic spindle disaggregates and
in many cell types the single pair of centrioles begins to
duplicate in preparation for the next mitotic division.
 Meiosis
• The process of sexual reproduction involves the
production by meiosis of specialised male and
female cells called gametes.
• Meiotic cell division is thus also called
gametogenesis.
• Each gamete contains the haploid number of
chromosomes (23 in humans) i.e. one from each
homologous pair.
• When the male and female gametes fuse at
fertilisation to form a zygote the diploid number of
chromosomes (46 in humans) is restored.
 Meiosis
• The member of each chromosome pair
assigned to a particular gamete is entirely
random, so that a particular gamete contains a
mix of chromosomes from the mother and
father of the individual forming the gamete.
• This mixing of chromosomes contributes to
the genetic diversity of the next generation.
• Thus evolutionary advantage
Process of meiosis
1. Duplication of the
chromosomes as
seen in mitosis
Process of meiosis Contd.

2. Crossing over of the

chromatids, so that genetic
information is exchanged
between the two
chromosomes of the
homologous pair, ie from the
father and one from the
mother – mixing alleles
through chiasma formation.
Process of meiosis Contd.

3. The first meiotic division then

proceeds, involving separation
of the pairs of chromatids still
joined together at the
centromere. Thus at the end of
the first meiotic division, each
daughter cell contains a half
complement of duplicated
chromosomes, one from each
homologous pair of
chromosomes.
Process of meiosis Contd.

4. The second meiotic

division involves splitting of
the chromatids by pulling
apart the centromeres. The
chromatids then migrate to
opposite poles of the
spindle.
 Comparison of mitosis and meiosis
(QUESTION)
Meiosis Mitosis

1. Involves one reduplication of the 1. A diploid cell produces four haploid

chromosomes followed by two sequential germ cells (gametes).
cell divisions
2. Crossing over occurs only in meiosis, to 2. The products of mitosis are genetically
rearrange alleles such that every gamete identical.
is genetically different
 Apoptosis
• Apoptosis is a necrotic cell process.
• The cell triggers the process by activating
the endogenous destruction program
that leads to cell death (“suicide program
of the cell”)
• Apoptosis plays an important part in the
development of organs as well as the
control and regulation of physiological
regeneration.
 Apoptosis Contd.
• During apoptosis, the DNA of the cell
nucleus is destroyed.
• In the process, the cell nucleus not only
becomes small and condensed (nuclear
pyknosis), but it also breaks into
fragments (extra nuclei, karyorrhexis),
which will finally completely dissolve
(karyolysis).
THE END