UNIT 16:

COMPUTING
RESEARCH
PROJECT
UNIT CODE
UNIT TYPE
K/618/7425
CORE
1

UNIT LEVEL 5
CREDIT VALUE 30
INSTRUCTOR KHURRAM ABBAS
COURSE INTRODUCTION
 This unit is assessed through a Pearson-set assignment. Students will choose their own project
based on a theme provided by Pearson (this will change annually).

 The aim of this unit is to give students the opportunity to engage in sustained research in a
specific field of study.

 Students will be able to demonstrate the capacity and ability to identify a research theme, to
develop research aims, objectives and outcomes, and to present the outcomes of such research
in both written and verbal formats.

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LEARNING OUTCOMES
 By the end of this unit students will be able to:

 LO1  Examine appropriate research methodologies and approaches as part of the

research process

 LO2  Conduct and analyse research relevant to a computing research project

 LO3  Communicate the outcomes of a research project to identified stakeholders

 LO4  Reflect on the application of research methodologies and concepts.

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MEANING OF RESEARCH
 Research in common parlance refers to a search for
knowledge.
 Once can also define research as a scientific and
systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic.
 In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
 The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current
English lays down the meaning of research as “a
careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”

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UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH
 Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.

 It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.

 In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem is research.

 It refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a

hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions
either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisations
for some theoretical formulation

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OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies)

 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies

with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies)

 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies).

 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

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MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
 Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits

 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research.

 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.

 Desire to be of service to society.

 Desire to get respectability.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH
 Descriptive vs. Analytical

 Applied vs. Fundamental

 Quantitative vs. Qualitative

 Conceptual vs. Empirical

 Some Other Types of Research

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DESCRIPTIVE VS. ANALYTICAL:

 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
 In descriptive studies the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of
shopping, preferences of people, or similar data.
 It also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the
variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all
kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
 In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material

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APPLIED VS FUNDAMENTAL
 Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization.
 Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution
or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and
understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research.
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem
 Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a
theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
 Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples
of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on
with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental
research.

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QUANTITATIVE VS
QUALITATIVE
 Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm theories
and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a
topic.
 Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and
surveys with closed-ended questions.
 Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or
experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not
well understood.
 Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions, observations
described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and theories.

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QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS

 Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to a sample (online, in
person, or over the phone).

 Experiments: Situation in which different types of variables are controlled and manipulated to
establish cause-and-effect relationships.

 Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be

controlled.

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QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS

 Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.

 Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that can
be used for further research.

 Ethnography: Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of time to

closely observe culture and behavior.

 Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.

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CONCEPTUAL VS. EMPIRICAL
 Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
 It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones.
 empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory.
 It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment.
 We can also call it as experimental type of research.

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SOME OTHER TYPES OF
RESEARCH
 All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based
on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the
environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.
 One-time research
 Longitudinal research
 Laboratory research
 Simulation research
 Clinical or diagnostic research
 Exploratory research
 Historical research

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RESEARCH PROCESS

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 RESEARCH PROCESS
 formulating the research problem;

 One should remember that the various steps  extensive literature survey;
involved in a research process are not mutually  developing the hypothesis;
exclusive; nor they are separate and distinct.
 preparing the research design;
 They do not necessarily follow each other in any
specific order and the researcher has to be  determining sample design;
constantly anticipating at each step in the research  collecting the data;
process the requirements of the subsequent steps.
 execution of the project;
 However, the following order concerning various
steps provides a useful procedural guideline  analysis of data;
regarding the research process:  hypothesis testing;
 generalisations and interpretation,
 preparation of the report or presentation of the
results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached 18
FORMULATING THE
RESEARCH PROBLEM
 There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those
which relate to relationships between variables.
 At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must
decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into.
 Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating
to the problem be resolved.
 Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of
the problem can be set up.
 The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step
in a scientific enquiry.
 Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the
problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of
view

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EXTENSIVE LITERATURE
SURVEY
 Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down.
 For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies
are the first place to go to.
 Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem.
 In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another.
 The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied.
 A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

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 DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING
HYPOTHESES
 After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
 Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.
The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on
the right track.
 Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a
solution;
 Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and
other clues;
 Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
 Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with
interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the
problem.
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PREPARING THE RESEARCH
DESIGN
 The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.
 There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing.
 The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the
consideration of the following:
 the means of obtaining the information
 the availability and skills of the researcher
 explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised and the
reasoning leading to the selection
 the time available for research
 the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

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DETERMINING SAMPLE
DESIGN
 All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.
 The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected
for obtaining a sample from a given population.
 Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
 With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the
non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.
 Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling,
cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling,
judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.

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DELIBERATE SAMPLING
 Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling.
 This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample which represents the universe.
 When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be
called convenience sampling.
 If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol
stations and may conduct interviews at these stations. This would be an example of convenience sample of
gasoline buyers. At times such a procedure may give very biased results particularly when the population is
not homogeneous.
 On the other hand, in judgement sampling the researcher’s judgement is used for selecting items which he
considers as representative of the population.

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SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
 This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every
item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples,
in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected.
 For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put
the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery.
 This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In case of infinite population.

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SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
 In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th name on a list,
every 10th house on one side of a street and so on.
 Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually
introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which
to start.
 This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a
design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth
element is selected until the desired number is secured.

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STRATIFIED SAMPLING
 If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous
group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample.

 In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations

or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum.

 If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire
procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random
sampling.

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QUOTA SAMPLING
 In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual strata is often so
expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual
selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota
sampling.
 The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in
the population.
 Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples
generally happen to be judgement samples rather than random samples.

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CLUSTER SAMPLING
 Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the
clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
 Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued its
cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450.
 For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150
card holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly.

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AREA SAMPLING
 Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total
geographical area of interest happens to be big one.
 Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping
areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are
randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in the sample.
 Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the population concerned.
It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do many interviews at
each location

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MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING
 This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling.
 This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area
like an entire country.
 Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such
as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns.
 If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is
described as multi-stage random sampling

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SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING
 This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed
in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information
yielded as survey progresses.

 This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical
quality control.

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 COLLECTING THE DATA
 There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
 Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an
experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines
the truth contained in his hypothesis.
 But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
 By observation
 Through personal interview
 Through telephone interviews
 By mailing of questionnaires
 Through schedules

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BY OBSERVATION
 This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own observation,
without interviewing the respondents.
 The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by
either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of respondents.
 This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this method is
also very limited.
 As such this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.

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THROUGH PERSONAL
INTERVIEW
 The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived
questions through personal interviews.
 This method of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends
upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.

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THROUGH TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS

 This method of collecting information involves contacting the respondents on telephone itself.
 This is not a very widely used method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in
developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited
time.

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BY MAILING OF
QUESTIONNAIRES
 The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with each other if this method of
survey is adopted.
 Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the
same.
 It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business surveys.
 Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced
which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire.
 Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective
in collecting the relevant information.

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THROUGH SCHEDULES
 Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.
 They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions.
 These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules.
 Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by
respondents.
 Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned.
 Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work

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EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT
 Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the
project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.
 The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If
the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily
machine-processed.
 In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to
be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and
training of the interviewers.

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ANALYSIS OF DATA
 After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them.
 The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then
drawing statistical inferences.
 The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables
for further analysis.
 Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
 Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding.
 With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure
wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables.

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HYPOTHESIS TESTING
 After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if
any, he had formulated earlier.
 Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary?
 This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
 Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for
the purpose.
 The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon
the nature and object of research inquiry.
 Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.

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GENERALISATIONS AND
INTERPRETATION
 If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory.
 As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalisations.
 If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the
basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
 The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead
to further researches.

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