CHAPTER 7

SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTIONS

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POPULATION AND SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTIONS
 Population Distribution
 Sampling Distribution

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Population Distribution

Definition
The population distribution is the
probability distribution of the population
data.

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Population Distribution

 Suppose there are only five students in an

advanced statistics class and the midterm
scores of these five students are
70 78 80 80 95
 Let x denote the score of a student

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Table 7.1 Population Frequency and Relative
Frequency Distributions

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Table 7.2 Population Probability Distribution

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Sampling Distribution

Definition
The probability distribution of x is called its
sampling distribution. It lists the various
values that x can assume and the
probability of each value of x .
In general, the probability distribution of a
sample statistic is called its sampling
distribution.

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Sampling Distribution
 Reconsider the population of midterm
scores of five students given in Table 7.1
 Consider all possible samples of three
scores each that can be selected, without
replacement, from that population.
 The total number of possible samples is

5! 5  4  3  2 1
5 C3    10
3!(5  3)! 3  2  1  2  1
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Sampling Distribution
 Suppose we assign the letters A, B, C, D,
and E to the scores of the five students so
that
 A = 70, B = 78, C = 80, D = 80, E = 95
 Then, the 10 possible samples of three
scores each are
 ABC, ABD, ABE, ACD, ACE,
ADE, BCD, BCE, BDE, CDE

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Table 7.3 All Possible Samples and Their Means
When the Sample Size Is 3

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Table 7.4 Frequency and Relative Frequency
Distributions of x When the Sample Size Is 3

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Table 7.5 Sampling Distribution of x When the
Sample Size Is 3

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SAMPLING AND NONSAMPLING ERRORS

Definition
Sampling error is the difference between
the value of a sample statistic and the value
of the corresponding population parameter.
In the case of the mean,
Sampling error = x  
assuming that the sample is random and no
nonsampling error has been made.

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SAMPLING AND NONSAMPLING ERRORS

 Definition
 The errors that occur in the collection,
recording, and tabulation of data are called
nonsampling errors.

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Reasons for the Occurrence of Nonsampling
Errors
 1. If a sample is nonrandom (and, hence,
nonrepresentative), the sample results may be too
difference from the census results.
 2. The questions may be phrased in such a way
that they are not fully understood by the members
of the sample or population.
 3. The respondents may intentionally give false
information in response to some sensitive
questions.
 4. The poll taker may make a mistake and enter a
wrong number in the records or make an error
while entering the data on a computer.

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Example 7-1

 Reconsiderthe population of five scores

given in Table 7.1. Suppose one sample of
three scores is selected from this population,
and this sample includes the scores 70, 80,
and 95. Find the sampling error.

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Example 7-1: Solution
70  78  80  80  95
  80.60
5
70  80  95
x  81.67
3
Sampling error  x    81.67  80.60  1.07

That is, the mean score estimated from the

sample is 1.07 higher than the mean score
of the population.

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SAMPLING AND NONSAMPLING ERRORS

Now suppose, when we select the sample

of three scores, we mistakenly record the
second score as 82 instead of 80.
 As a result, we calculate the sample mean
as
70  82  95
x  82.33
3

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SAMPLING AND NONSAMPLING ERRORS

 The difference between this sample mean

and the population mean is

x    82.33  80.60  1.73

 This difference does not represent the

sampling error.
 Only 1.07 of this difference is due to the
sampling error.

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SAMPLING AND NONSAMPLING ERRORS

 The remaining portion represents the

nonsampling error.
 It is equal to 1.73 – 1.07 = .66
 It occurred due to the error we made in
recording the second score in the sample
 Also,
Nonsampling error  Incorrect x  Correct x
 82.33  81.67  .66

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Figure 7.1 Sampling and nonsampling errors.

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MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF x

 Definition
 The mean and standard deviation of the
sampling distribution of x are called the
mean and standard deviation of x and
are denoted by  x and  x , respectively.

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MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF x
 Mean of the Sampling Distribution of x
 Themean of the sampling
distribution of x is always equal to the
mean of the population. Thus,

x  

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MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF x
 Standard Deviation of the Sampling Distribution
of x
 The standard deviation of the sampling
distribution of x is

x 
n
 where σ is the standard deviation of the
population and n is the sample size. This formula
is used when n /N ≤ .05, where N is the
population size.

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MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF x
If the condition n /N ≤ .05 is not satisfied,
we use the following formula to calculate
x :
 N n
x 
n N 1
N n
where the factor N 1is called the finite
population correction factor

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Two Important Observations

1. The spread of the sampling distribution of

isx smaller than the spread of the
corresponding population distribution, i.e.
x x
2. The standard deviation of the sampling
distribution of decreases as the
x
sample size increases

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Example 7-2
 The mean wage for all 5000 employees
who work at a large company is $27.50
and the standard deviation is $3.70.
 Let x be the mean wage per hour for a
random sample of certain employees
selected from this company. Find the
mean and standard deviation of x for a
sample size of
 (a) 30 (b) 75 (c) 200

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Example 7-2: Solution

(a) N = 5000, μ = $27.50, σ = $3.70. In

this case, n/N = 30/5000 = .006 < .05.

 x    $27.50
 3.70
x    $.676
n 30

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Example 7-2: Solution

(b) N = 5000, μ = $27.50, σ = $3.70. In

this case, n/N = 75/5000 = .015 < .05.

 x    $27.50
 3.70
x    $.427
n 75

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Example 7-2: Solution

(c) In this case, n = 200 and

n/N = 200/5000 = .04, which is less than.05.

 x    $27.50
 3.70
x    $.262
n 200
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SHAPE OF THE SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION
OF x

 The population from which samples are

drawn has a normal distribution.
 The population from which samples are
drawn does not have a normal
distribution.

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Sampling From a Normally Distributed
Population
 If the population from which the samples
are drawn is normally distributed with mean
μ and standard deviation σ, then the
sampling distribution of the sample mean,
x , will also be normally distributed with
the following mean and standard deviation,
irrespective of the sample size:

 x   and  x 
n
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Figure 7.2 Population distribution and sampling
x
distributions of .

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Example 7-3
 In a recent SAT, the mean score for all
examinees was 1020. Assume that the
distribution of SAT scores of all examinees is
normal with the mean of 1020 and a standard
deviation of 153. Let x be the mean SAT score
of a random sample of certain examinees.
Calculate the mean and standard deviation of x
and describe the shape of its sampling
distribution when the sample size is
 (a) 16 (b) 50 (c) 1000

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Example 7-3: Solution

(a) μ = 1020 and σ = 153.

 x    1020
 153
x    38.250
n 16

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Figure 7.3

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Example 7-3: Solution

(b)

 x    1020
 153
x    21.637
n 50

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Figure 7.4

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Example 7-3: Solution

(c)

 x    1020
 153
x    4.838
n 1000

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Figure 7.5

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 Sampling From a Population That Is Not
Normally Distributed
 Central Limit Theorem
 According to the central limit theorem, for a large
sample size, the sampling distribution of x is
approximately normal, irrespective of the shape of
the population distribution. The mean and standard
deviation of the sampling distribution of x are

 x   and  x 
n
 The sample size is usually considered to be large if
 n ≥ 30.

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Figure 7.6 Population distribution and sampling
x
distributions of .

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Example 7-4

 The mean rent paid by all tenants in a small city

is $1550 with a standard deviation of $225.
However, the population distribution of rents for
all tenants in this city is skewed to the right.
Calculate the mean and standard deviation of x
and describe the shape of its sampling
distribution when the sample size is
 (a) 30 (b) 100

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Example 7-4: Solution

(a) Let x be the mean rent paid by a sample

of 30 tenants.

 x    $1550
 225
x    $41.079
n 30

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Figure 7.7

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Example 7-4: Solution

(b) Let x be the mean rent paid by a sample

of 100 tenants.

 x    $1550
 225
x    $22.500
n 100

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Figure 7.8

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APPLICATIONS OF THE SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTION OF x

1. If we take all possible samples of the

same (large) size from a population and
calculate the mean for each of these
samples, then about 68.26% of the
sample means will be within one
standard deviation of the population
mean.

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Figure 7.9 P (   1 x  x    1 x )

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APPLICATIONS OF THE SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTION OF x

2. If we take all possible samples of the

same (large) size from a population and
calculate the mean for each of these
samples, then about 95.44% of the
sample means will be within two standard
deviations of the population mean.

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Figure 7.10P (   2 x  x    2 x )

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APPLICATIONS OF THE SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTION OF x

3. If we take all possible samples of the

same (large) size from a population and
calculate the mean for each of these
samples, then about 99.74% of the
sample means will be within three
standard deviations of the population
mean.

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Figure 7.11P (   3 x  x    3 x )

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Example 7-5

Assume that the weights of all packages of

a certain brand of cookies are normally
distributed with a mean of 32 ounces and a
standard deviation of .3 ounce. Find the
probability that the mean weight, x , of a
random sample of 20 packages of this
brand of cookies will be between 31.8 and
31.9 ounces.

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Example 7-5: Solution

 x    32 ounces
 .3
x    .06708204 ounce
n 20

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z Value for a Value of x

The z value for a value of x is calculated

as

x 
z 
x

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Example 7-5: Solution

31.8  32
 For x = 31.8: z  2.98
.06708204
31.9  32
 For x = 31.9: z  1.49
.06708204

 P(31.8 < x < 31.9) = P(-2.98 < z < -1.49)

= P(z < -1.49) - P(z < -2.98)
= .0681 - .0014 = .0667

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Figure 7.12

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Example 7-6
According to Sallie Mae surveys and Credit
Bureau data, college students carried an
average of $3173 credit card debt in 2008.
Suppose the probability distribution of the
current credit card debts for all college
students in the United States is known but
its mean is $3173 and the standard
deviation is $750. Let x be the mean credit
card debt of a random sample of 400 U.S.
college students.
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Example 7-6

a) What is the probability that the mean of

the current credit card debts for this
sample is within $70 of the population
mean?
b) What is the probability that the mean of
the current credit card debts for this
sample is lower than the population mean
by $50 or more?

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Example 7-6: Solution

μ = $3173 and σ = $750. The shape of

the probability distribution of the
population is unknown. However, the
sampling distribution of is
approximately normal because the
sample is large (n > 30).
Example 7-6: Solution
(a)

 P($3103 ≤ x ≤ $3243)
= P(-1.87 ≤ z ≤ 1.87)
= .9693 - .0307
= .9386

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Figure 7.13 P ($3103  x  $3243)

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Example 7-6: Solution

(a) Therefore, the probability that the mean

of the current credit card debts for this
sample is within $70 of the population
mean is .9386.

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Example 7-6: Solution
(b)
 For x = $3123:
3123  3173
z  1.33
37.50

 P( x ≤ 3123) = P (z ≤ -1.33)
= .0918

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Figure 7.14 P ( x  $3123)

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Example 7-6: Solution

(b) Therefore, the probability that the mean

of the current credit card debts for this
sample is lower than the population mean
by $50 or more is .0918.

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POPULATION AND SAMPLE PROPORTIONS

The population and sample

proportions, denoted by p and p̂ ,
respectively, are calculated as

X x
p and pˆ 
N n

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POPULATION AND SAMPLE
PROPORTIONS

where
 N = total number of elements in the population
 n = total number of elements in the sample
 X = number of elements in the population that
possess a specific characteristic
 x = number of elements in the sample that
possess a specific characteristic

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Example 7-7

Suppose a total of 789,654 families live in a

city and 563,282 of them own homes. A
sample of 240 families is selected from this
city, and 158 of them own homes. Find the
proportion of families who own homes in
the population and in the sample.

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Example 7-7: Solution

X 563,282
p   .71
N 789,654
x 158
pˆ    .66
n 240

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MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION, AND SHAPE OF
THE SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION OF p̂

 Sampling Distribution of p̂
 Mean and Standard Deviation of p̂
 Shape of the Sampling Distribution of p̂

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Sampling Distribution of the Sample Proportion p̂

Definition
The probability distribution of the sample
proportion, p̂ , is called its sampling
distribution. It gives various values that
p̂ can assume and their probabilities.

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Example 7-8

Boe Consultant Associates has five

employees. Table 7.6 gives the names of
these five employees and information
concerning their knowledge of statistics.

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Table 7.6 Information on the Five Employees of
Boe Consultant Associates

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Example 7-8

If we define the population proportion, p,

as the proportion of employees who know
statistics, then
 p = 3 / 5 = .60

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Example 7-8

 Now, suppose we draw all possible samples

of three employees each and compute the
proportion of employees, for each sample,
who know statistics.
5! 5  4  3  2 1
Total number of samples  5C3    10
3!(5  3)! 3  2  1 2  1

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Table 7.7 All Possible Samples of Size 3 and the
Value of p̂ for Each Sample

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Table 7.8 Frequency and Relative Frequency
Distribution of p̂ When the Sample Size Is 3

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Table 7.9 Sampling Distribution of p̂ When the
Sample Size is 3

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Mean and Standard Deviation of p̂

Mean of the Sample Proportion

The mean of the sample proportion, p̂ ,
is denoted by  p̂ and is equal to the
population proportion, p. Thus,

 pˆ  p

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Mean and Standard Deviation of p̂

Standard Deviation of the Sample Proportion

The standard deviation of the sample
, is denoted by  p̂ and is given by
proportion,
the formula
p̂
pq
 pˆ 
n
where p is the population proportion, q = 1 – p , and
n is the sample size. This formula is used when n/N
≤ .05, where N is the population size.

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Mean and Standard Deviation of p̂
If n /N > .05, then  p̂ is calculated as:
pq N n
 pˆ 
n N 1
N n
where the factor is called the finite-
N 1
population correction factor.

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Shape of the Sampling Distribution ofp̂

Central Limit Theorem for Sample Proportion

According to the central limit theorem, the
sampling distribution of p̂ is approximately
normal for a sufficiently large sample size. In the
case of proportion, the sample size is considered
to be sufficiently large if np and nq are both
greater than 5 – that is, if
np > 5 and nq >5

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Example 7-9

According to a survey by Harris Interactive

conducted in February 2009 for the charitable
agency World Vision, 56% of U.S. teens volunteer
time for charitable causes. Assume that this
result is true for the current population of all U.S.
teens. Let p̂ be the proportion of U.S. teens in a
random sample of 1500 who volunteer time for
charitable causes. Find the mean and standard
deviation of p̂ and describe the shape of its
sampling distribution.

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Example 7-9: Solution

p  .56 and q  1  p  1  .56  .44

 pˆ  p  .56
pq (.56)(.44)
 pˆ    .0128
n 1500
np  1500(.56)  840 and nq  1500(.44)  660

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Example 7-9: Solution

 np and nq are both greater than 5.

 Therefore, the sampling distribution of p̂

is approximately normal (by the central
limit theorem) with a mean of .56 and a
standard deviation of .0128, as shown in
Figure 7.15.

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Figure 7.15

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Applications of the Sampling Distribution of p̂
Example 7-10
According to the BBMG Conscious Consumer
Report, 51% of the adults surveyed said that
they are willing to pay more for products with
social and environmental benefits despite the
current tough economic times (USA TODAY, June
8, 2009). Suppose that this result is true for the
current population of adult Americans. Let p̂ be
the proportion in a random sample of 1050 adult
Americans who will hold the said opinion. Find
the probability that the value of p̂
is between
.53 and .55.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 7-10: Solution

n =1050, p = .51, and q = 1 – p = 1 - .51 = .49

pq (.51)(.49)
 p  p  .51 and  pˆ    .0154725
n 1050
np  1050(.51)  535.5  5 and nq  1050(.49)  514.5  5

We can infer from the central limit theorem that the

sampling distribution of p̂ is approximately normal.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Figure 7.16 P (.53  pˆ  .55)

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
z Value for a Value of p̂

The z value for a value of p̂ is

calculated as

pp
z 
 p

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 7-10: Solution

 For p̂ = .53: z
.53  .51
 1.30
.01542725

 For p̂ = .55: z
.55  .51
 2.59
.01542725

 P(.53 < p̂ < .55) = P(1.30 < z < 2.59)

= .9952 - .9032
= .0920
Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 7-10: Solution
 Thus, the probability is .0920 that
the proportion of U.S. adults in a
random sample of 1050 who will be
willing to pay more for products with
social and environmental benefits
despite the current tough economic
times is between .53 and .55.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Figure 7.17 P (.53  pˆ  .55)

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 7-11
Maureen Webster, who is running for mayor in a
large city, claims that she is favored by 53% of
all eligible voters of that city. Assume that this
claim is true. What is the probability that in a
random sample of 400 registered voters taken
from this city, less than 49% will favor Maureen
Webster?

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 7-11: Solution

n =400, p = .53, and q = 1 – p = 1 - .53

= .47

pq (.53)(.47)
  p  .53 and  pˆ 

p   .02495496
n 400

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 7-11: Solution
.49  .53
z  1.60
.02495496

 P( p̂ < .49) = P(z < -1.60)

= .0548
Hence, the probability that less than 49%
of the voters in a random sample of 400
will favor Maureen Webster is .0548.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Figure 7.18 P ( pˆ  .49)

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved