Critical Thinking Skills

(FIA 0014)

Lecture 6: Analyzing Arguments

 Definition of Analyzing an Argument

To analyze an argument means to break it down

into its various parts to see clearly what
conclusion is defended and on what grounds.
Diagramming Short Arguments
 Diagramming Short Arguments
• Diagramming is a quick and easy way to
analyze relatively short arguments (i.e.,
arguments that are roughly a paragraph in
length or shorter).
• A. Recognize when premises provide independent
support for a conclusion.
• B. Recognize when premises
provide  interdependent support or linked support
for a conclusion.
The Difference between Linked/ Interdependent
and Independent Premises
Linked/ Interdependent premises Independent premises
Two premises are linked when Two premises are independent
the omission of one of the when neither premise would
premises would cancel or provide less support for the
reduce the amount of support conclusion if the other premise
provided by the other. were omitted.
Example: Example
• No student at Wexford • Nick doesn’t own a car.
College is a Rhodes Scholar. • Nick is legally blind.
• Melissa is a Rhodes Scholar. • So, Nick probably won’t drive
• So, Melissa is not a student a car to the game.
at Wexford College.
Independent Premises
 How to Verify Independent Premises

Since Mary visited a realtor and her bank’s mortgage

department, she must be planning on buying a home.

• Step 1. Number each statement and note each

indicator word.
• Since (1) Mary visited a realtor and (2) her bank’s
mortgage department, (3) she must be planning on
buying a home.
Since (1) Mary visited a realtor and (2) her
bank’s mortgage department, (3) she
must be planning on buying a home.

• Step 2. Which of the claims is the conclusion? Which

are premises?
(1) (2) (3)
Premise Premise Conclusion
*Note the
indicator word,
“Since”
Since (1) Mary visited a realtor and (2) her
bank’s mortgage department, (3) she
must be planning on buying a home.

• Step 3. Use arrows to represent the intended relationship

between the claims.
(1) (2) In this case the premises are
independent. Even though the
combined force of both
premises makes the argument
(3) stronger, either premise could
stand alone in supporting the
conclusion.
Linked/ Interdependent Premises
Sandra can’t register for her classes on Wednesday.
After all, Sandra is a sophomore and sophomore
registration begins on Thursday.

• Step 1. Identify each claim and note any indicator

words that might help identify premise(s) and
conclusion(s).

• (1) Sandra can’t register for her classes on

Wednesday. After all, (2) Sandra is a sophomore and
(3) sophomore registration begins on Thursday.
(1) Sandra can’t register for her classes on Wednesday.
After all, (2) Sandra is a sophomore and (3) sophomore
registration begins on Thursday.

• “After all” is generally a premise indicator.

• “and” serves to join two different claims, thus linking

them together.
(2) + (3)

(1)
How to Diagram Arguments
 How to Diagram Arguments (1 of 3)

Bertie probably isn’t home. His car isn’t in the

driveway, and there are no lights on in his house.
1. Read through the argument carefully, circling
any premise or conclusion indicators you see.
2. Number the statements consecutively as they
appear in the argument. Don’t number any
sentences that are not statements.
 How to Diagram Arguments (2 of 3)

Bertie probably isn’t home. His car isn’t in the driveway,

and there are no lights on in his house.

3. Arrange the numbers on a page with the premises

placed above the conclusion(s) they support. Omit any
irrelevant or redundant statements.
4. Using arrows to mean “is offered as evidence for,”
create a kind of flowchart that shows which premises are
intended to support which conclusions.
 How to Diagram Arguments (3 of 3)
Bertie probably isn’t home. His car isn’t in the driveway, and
there are no lights on in his house.

5. Indicate independent premises by drawing arrows directly

from the premises to the conclusions they are claimed to
support. Indicate linked premises by placing a plus sign
between each of the premises, and drawing an arrow from
the underlined premises to the conclusions they support.
6. Put the argument’s main conclusion at the bottom of the
diagram.
Summarizing Longer Arguments
 Summarizing Longer Arguments
• It is usually better to summarize lengthy arguments
rather than diagram them.
• In summarizing we don’t try to identify every single
step in an argument. Instead, the goal of an
argument summary is to provide a synopsis of the
argument that accurately restates the main points in
the summarizer’s own words.
• The method is called standardization.
 5 Basic Steps in Standardizing Arguments (1
of 3)
a. Read through the argument carefully. Identify the
main conclusion (it may be only implied) and any
major premises and sub conclusions. Paraphrase as
needed to clarify meaning. (A paraphrase is a
restatement of a passage using different words and
phrases. A good paraphrase is clear, concise,
accurate, and charitable.)
5 Basic Steps in Standardizing Arguments (2
of 3)
b. Omit any unnecessary or irrelevant material.
c. Number the steps in the argument and list them in
correct logical order (i.e., with the premises placed
above the conclusions they are intended to
support).
5 Basic Steps in Standardizing Arguments (3
of 3)

d. Fill in any key missing premises and conclusions.

e. Add justifications for each conclusion in the
argument. In other words, for each conclusion or
subconclusion, indicate in parentheses from which
previous lines in the argument the conclusion or
subconclusion is claimed to directly follow.
Paraphrasing
 Criteria of Paraphrasing
• A paraphrase is a detailed restatement of a passage
using different words and phrases. The main four
qualities of a good paraphrase is:
– Accurate
– Clear
– Concise
– Charitable
 A Good Paraphrase Is Accurate

• An accurate paraphrase is faithful to an author’s

intended meaning; it reproduces that meaning fairly
and without bias or distortion.
 A Good Paraphrase Is Clear

• Arguments are often expressed in language that is

needlessly wordy or confusing. Because one of the
basic aims of an argument summary is to clarify what
an argument is saying, it’s often necessary to
translate (i.e., paraphrase) complex or confusing
language into language that’s easier to understand.
 A Good Paraphrase Is Concise
• A good summary captures the essence of an argument. It
strips away all the irrelevant or unimportant details and puts
the key points of the argument in a nutshell.

Original passage
• The office wasn’t open at that point in time, owing to the fact
that there was no electrical power in the building. (22 words)
Paraphrase
• The office was closed then because there was no electricity in
the building. (13 words)
 A Good Paraphrase Is Charitable (1 of 3)

• It is often possible to interpret a passage in more

than one way. In such cases, the principle of charity
requires that we interpret the passage as charitably
as the evidence reasonably permits.
 A Good Paraphrase Is Charitable (2 of 3)
• Original passage
Cigarette smoking causes lung cancer. Therefore, if you continue to
smoke, you are endangering your health.

• First paraphrase
Cigarette smoking invariably produces lung cancer. Therefore, if you
continue to smoke, you are endangering your health.

• Second paraphrase
Cigarette smoking is a causal factor that greatly increases the risk of
getting lung cancer. Therefore, if you continue to smoke, you are
endangering your health.
 A Good Paraphrase Is Charitable (3 of 3)
• Original passage
Cigarette smoking causes lung cancer. Therefore, if you continue to
smoke, you are endangering your health.

• First paraphrase
Cigarette smoking invariably produces lung cancer. Therefore, if you
continue to smoke, you are endangering your health.

• Second paraphrase √
Cigarette smoking is a causal factor that greatly increases the risk of
getting lung cancer. Therefore, if you continue to smoke, you are
endangering your health.
Finding Missing Premises
& Conclusions
Finding Missing Premises and Conclusions (1
of 2)
• In real life, people often leave parts of their
arguments unstated. Sometimes a premise is left
unstated:
• Advertisement: The bigger the burger, the better the
burger. Burgers are bigger at Burger King.
• Implied here is the conclusion, “Burgers are better at
Burger King.”
Finding Missing Premises and Conclusions (2
of 2)
• An argument with a missing premise or conclusion is
called an enthymeme.

• There are two basic rules in filling in missing steps in

enthymemes:
1. Faithfully interpret the arguer’s intentions.
2. Be charitable.
 Finding Missing Premises and Conclusions-
Faithfully interpret the arguer’s intentions
• The most important rule in filling in missing premises
and conclusions is to be as accurate as possible in
interpreting an arguer’s intent.
• A missing premise or conclusion is a genuine part of
an argument only if it was implicitly understood to be
part of the argument by the arguer himself.
• Consequently, we should always try to fill in a missing
step in an argument in a way that the arguer himself
would recognize as expressing his own thought.
 Be charitable. (1 of 2)

• Sometimes it is difficult or impossible to know what

unstated premise or conclusion an arguer had
implicitly in mind.
• In such cases, the principle of charity requires that
we interpret the argument as generously as possible.
 Be charitable. (2 of 2)

• In general, this means that we should search for a

way of completing the argument that (1) is a
plausible way of interpreting the arguer’s uncertain
intent and (2) makes the argument as good an
argument as it can be. Such judgments require
practice and skill.
The End