Rules of

Thumb
What is a “Rule of Thumb”?
What makes the difference in intelligence between a
primate and a human being? The difference that
made a primate and a “Hommo Sappiens” intelligent?

The Thumb
The thumb made the difference because without it,
it is impossible for anybody to perform any activity
at all.

In English a Rule of Thumb is essential to know the

basics of this language, like your thumbs. If you don
´t know them it will be very difficult for you to
understand how English works.
Rule number 1
Word: group of letters that
make sence, ex.: house, girl.
Phrase: two or more words
together but don´t complete an
idea, ex.: a car, good person.
Sentence: phrases that complete an idea. A
sentence is formed by subject and verb (at
least): He studies English.
Rule number 2:

The “7 magic words of

English”.
1. Nouns: a word used to name a
person, place, thing or quality.
They can be proper, concrete:
countable (singular and plural)
and abstract: uncountable
Mariana, Raúl, México, table,
pencil, books, love, loyalty

The man entered the room

 2.Pronouns: a word used to
substitute a noun. There are:
Personal pronouns: Object pronouns:
I, You, We, They, Me, You, Us, Them,
He, She, It Him, Her It
Possesive pronouns: Relative pronouns:
mine, yours, ours, Who, that, which,
theirs, his, hers, its whose.
Personal pronouns substitute the SUBJECT in sentence:
John likes soccer very much.
He likes soccer very much.
Animals live in Africa and Asia.
They live in Africa and Asia.

Object pronouns substitute the OBJECT OF A VERB OR THE

OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION. They are never SUBJECT.
I like Maria. I like HER
The students played soccer The students played IT
She lives with Carlos and Pedro She lives with THEM
I am interested in dogs I am interested in them

Posesive pronouns substitute the posession that is described.

She has a beautiful house. Mine is beautiful , too.
My dog is a fox terrier. Theirs is a bull pitt

Relative pronouns reffer to a subject mentioned before to

describe ir.
I like people who (that) are honest
A dron is a computer flying machine which (that) helps people.
Singular Indefinite pronouns:
Another, Anybody, Anyone,
Anything, Each, Either, Everybody,
Everyone, Everything, Neither,
Nobody, No one, Nothing, One,
Somebody, Something, Someone  
Plular Indefinite pronouns:
Both, Few, Many, Several  
Examples of Indefinite Pronouns
Does anybody have the time?
All are welcome to our house for Thanksgiving.
Tim doesn’t have any.
Michael passed his card to another.
Each brought a dessert to share.
Anyone can see what’s going on here.
Alice couldn’t hear anything at the concert.
Everything is going as planned
Everyone clapped when the movie ended.
Many missed the bus.
No one admitted to knocking over the base.
One could see the tornado forming from miles away.
 He should tell her that the car is
broken. Mine is OK. Tell me if you want
to use it.

We want to learn English. Our teacher

is a person who has studied a lot of it

These rules are important, we should

learn them by heart. Ours are very
complex in Spanish.
 3. Adjectives: a word used to
describe or to limit a noun or
pronoun. There are:
Short adjectives: Opinion and fact
Red, tall, fat, nice adjectives: beautiful,
big.
Long adjectives: Demonstrative
adjectives:
Intelligent,
expensive, This, that, these,
dangerous those, some, any
Definite and
indefinite articles:
a/an, the Numerals:
One, two, one
Posessive adjectives
hundred, first,
My, your, our, their, second, third.
his, her, its
 Formas de utilizar los adjetivos

Forma simple When we only describe the subject (noun)

Mexico is a beautiful and big city

This is an easy and simple rule

Forma comparativa When we describe two or more than two groups of the
same kind and one of them is either more or less.

Mexico is bigger than Guatemala.

English is easier to learn than Spanish

A Ferrari is more expensive than a BMW

She is more beautiful and inteligent than any

other girl around here
If two things that are compared and both have the same characteristics or
almost identical features then we make equality comparison.

Mexico is as big as New York City

Carlos Slim is as rich as Bill Gates.

The USA is as powerful as Russia in weaponry.

We are as intelligent as any other student from any other private university.

Short / Long
AS adj
AS
 When we describe one out of many and this one is
Forma superlativa superior in many ways to the rest of the same kind.

Carlos Slim is said to be the richest man in the world

He is my best student in class.

Nikole Kidman is the most glamorous woman in the world

Comparative form
Short adj -er than

more Long adj than

Superlative form
the Short adj -est

the most Long adj

In English there are four irregular adjectives, they are used
in the same way short and long adjectives are but the form
of the adjective changes from simple to comparative and
from comparative to superlative forms.

good Better The best

than

bad Worse The

than worst

far Further The

than furthest

little Less The least

than
Paulina is a very beautiful and nice girl.
She is very extroverted. She is tall and
thin. She is about 25 years old.

My first level teacher was very sweet

and nice. She was the best teacher in
my life

This University is famous because it

offers good studies.
 4. Prepositions: a word used to
show the relation between a noun
or pronoun, verb or adjective and
some other word in the sentence.
There are :
Prepositions of place: Prepositions of direction:
down, through, from,
In front of, between, on
around,up, past, to,
top of, next to, opposite,
along, across, into,
under, in, above, behind,
off/on, at, in/out
on
Prepositions of time:
during, until, from, before,
in, since, on, at, after, for,
to

Prepositions in general:
About, above, across, after, against, along,
among, around, at, before, behind, below,
beneath, beside, between, beyond, but, by,
despite, down, during, except, for, from, in,
inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, over, past,
since,through, to, toward, under, until, up,
with, without.
Mother went into the classroom for
some books.
My class starts at about 4 in the
afternoon.
The telephone was invented by G. Bell in
the eighteeth century.
I am married to a very nice woman. She
works with me in my house at night.
 5. Verbs: a word used to show
action, express a state of being,
help construct a conjugation and
express a mode. There are:
Action verbs:
regular: play, dance Modal verbs: can,
Irregular: go, eat could, may, might,
Link or state verbs would, must, should,
Express qualities and
shall, ought to, have
feelings: be, become,
smell, seem, look, to, need to
appear, feel
 Auxiliary verbs: these help form
conjugation: do, does, did, have, has, will,
going to, had, is, am ,are, was, were, has
been, have been, had been
Phrasal verbs: these are formed by a verb
and a preposition: come in, take off, go
down, come up with, think of.
A verb has four forms:
Past participle
Simple form (SF): Past form (PF):
form (PPF):
Study Studied
Studied
Go went
gone
Present participle form (PrF): studying, going
 She sang while the orchestra
played(action verb)
We are happy to feel fine today(link
verb)
We didn`t study today.
He has visited Acapulco many times
We must study and work
The plane took off at 7am exactly
 6. Adverbs: a word used to
modify and adjective, describe
action or another adverb. They
usually have the “-ly” ending.
There are:
Frequency adverbs:
always, usually, Adverbs of manner:
generally, abruptly, badly,
sometimes, seldom, correctly, quietly
never.
Adverbs of degree: Adverbs of duration:
awfully, nearly, soon, often
simply, well, very,
wonderfully.
Yes and No adverbs
Interrogative
adverbs: where, Adverbs of time:
when, how, what, today, yesterday,
why, who, how now
many, how much
 He suddenly finished the class
yesterday.
He is very fat
We study very enthusiastically
to know English
Mexicans always kiss once to show
frienship
Where did you go for the weekend?

I did not do it.

7. Conjunctions: a word used to
connect words, phrases and
clauses in sentences. These
words are:
And Or But

While Since If

As Because
 Bread and butter are fattening

You or me are going there

We didn´t pass because we didn`t

study
You won´t pass if you don´t study

Act as if you were alive

All your scholarship would be
in vain if at the same time
you do not build your
character and attain
mastery over your thoughts
and your actions.
Ghandi.
 Woman is the
companion of man,
gifted being with
equal mental
capacity.
What is faith if it is not
translated into action?

The dignity of man

requires obedience to a
higher law, to the
strength of the spirit.
 Rule number 3: tenses in
English

A tense indicates who, where and mainly WHEN an action happens. In other
words the time when it occurs.

In english there are 2 types of

SIMPLE TENSES
tenses:

PROGRESSIVE TENSES
 SIMPLE TENSES
1. Simple present: We study at the UVM this semester. She takes English
everyday.
*It describes habits, repetitive actions and daily activities

2. Simple past: We studied at the UVM in 1995. She studied Laws last year
*It describes actions from the past, completed activities. The words that
identify this tense can be: yesterday, last, ago, in 1993, etc. It describes
exactly when the action occured.
3. Simple future: I will probably pass the exam. Maybe, they will come tomorrow

*It describes future actions, probable results in the future. Some word that
indicate future time are: tomorrow, next, this year, tonight, etc

4. Present perfect: We have never been to Greece before. Sandra has bought a
new car. I have lived in Mexico for 6 years. Carlos has studied French since
2003. We have already finished our task.
*It describes actions that began in the past, we don´t know when, and the
action continues up to the present time or affects the present moment. It is
used to describe experience.
Notice the form of the verb in every example. The form is simple, past or past
participle, depending on the auxiliary verb used.
 SIMPLE TENSES
5. Past Perfect: When I arrived at 10 at the airport our plane had left.
* It describes actions that occured before another one in the past. It is also
known as The past of the past
6. Future Perfect: By the time you finish this the rest of the class will have
arrived

PROGRESSIVE TENSES

1. Present Progressive: Right now, we are reading this lesson. He is driving to

work in my car.

*It describes temporary activities, activities at the moment of speaking.

2. Past Progressive: I was sleeping when you called. They were playing when
their mother arrived.
*It describes continuous past actions when another action interrupts.

3. Future Progressive: Janice will be exercising next summer I will be sleeping all
weekend long.
*It describes continuous future actions.
 PROGRESSIVE TENSES

4. Present Perfect Progressive: We have been studying this lessons for the past few
days. She has been exercising, now she looks thinner.

*It describes actions that began in tha past and continue into the present
time and will in the future.

5. Past Perfect Progressive: Sam had been repairing the car that was damaged in
the storm. I had been having a lot of fun when the light went off.
*It describes a continuing action interrupted by another.

6. Future Perfect Progressive: When we go on vacation next summer, I will have

been exercising for a month.
*It describes a continuing future action before another
 Types of sentences

Affirmative sentence
We study at the UVM

Negative sentence
We don´t study at the UVM

Yes/ No questions
Do you like English?

Information questions (Wh_questions)

Where do you live?
 Sentences

A sentence must express a complete thought. Think about that for a moment. In order to be a
correct sentence, it must express a complete thought. What do we mean by complete?
To be a complete thought, a sentence needs a subject, and a verb.
Subject: who or what the sentence is about.
Verb: describes the subject; actions, states of being, or events. The verb (and all the other words that
come after the subject) is called the predicate.
Although this sentence has only two words, it's a complete sentence: I sing. It's a complete thought.
It has a subject, the word I . The verb is sing. If we want to add words to the sentence, we can: I sing a
lovely song. Those words a lovely song are not a complete sentence; they're just a piece of a
sentence. That's called a sentence fragment.
 
Now, look at the example sentence again: I is the subject;  I is who this sentence is about. sing is the
verb;
sing is describing or telling something about the subject.  a lovely song is a part of this sentence that
comes after the subject, and after the verb. sing a lovely song is the predicate of the sentence. Now,
we'll use sentences that are similar to our example sentence to explain the four different kinds of
sentences:
1.  Declarative: makes a statement, and ends with a period. I sing a lovely song.
2.  Interrogative: asks a question, and ends with a question mark. Did I sing a lovely song?
3.  Imperative: gives a command or makes a request, and ends with a period or an
exclamation point. (an exclamation point shows a strong emotion of some kind, i.e., pleasure,
anger, fear, etc.) Sing a song for us now.
4.  Exclamatory: expresses strong feeling or emotion. He sang a lovely song ! (he = the subject;
sang = past tense of the verb "sing"; sang a lovely song = the predicate)
Using what you have just learned, look at these examples and decide if they're complete sentences,
or fragments (parts, or pieces) of a sentence. Remember: a complete sentence must have a
subject and a verb

A note about fragments

In everyday conversational English, we use sentence fragments all the time. Fragments of
sentences are not used in any kind of formal writing, i.e., academic, business, or legal.
 
Are you ready to leave yet? In a second.
I think Misty's hair is really a wig. No way!
James is one of the cutest guys on Paltalk. Maybe, maybe not.
I might be late to class tonight Professor. No problem.
A simple subject is the main word or words that names the person, place, thing, or idea about
which something is being said. A simple predicate (verb) is the verb or verbs which says
something about the subject. The predicate completes a sentence. While the  subject shows
who or what the sentence is about, the predicate gives the details that finish the sentence. To
repeat: The simple subject is the principal word that shows who or what the sentence is about,
and the simple predicate is the verb or verbs that say something about the subject.
A compound subject is two or more subjects joined by a conjunction (usually and, or) and
have the same verb. Look at this:
   Peter and Jennifer are good friends.
Peter and Jennifer = the compound subject; and = the conjunction; are = the verb; are good
friends = the predicate.
 
A Compound Predicate is two or more verbs joined by a conjunction that have the same
subject. 
Mimi fell down the stairs and broke her ankle.
        Mimi = the subject; fell, broke = 2 verbs; and = the conjunction joining the 2 verbs.
        Mimi (subject) fell down the stairs and broke her ankle. (compound predicate)
If you have a problem deciding what the subject is, try to find the verb. Then ask yourself who or what.
Coming home late at night, I almost drove into a tree. The main verb is drove. Who or what drove ? I is the
subject.
A pack of wild dogs chased the picnickers away from the park. The main verb is chased. Who or what
chased? The pack chased. pack is the subject.
While this method is fine for simple sentences, how can you find the subject if the sentence is a bit more
complicated? "A few of us are tired of walking." (The subject is "few". See #2)  "It was Zeke who was the DJ
for the street dance." (The subject is "it". See #5)
 Here are more tips for finding the subject of a sentence:
 
1.  In imperative sentences (showing a command or a request), the subject is always you, even if the word
you isn't written in the sentence. Example: (You) Shut the door. (You) Help your sister wash the dishes.
2.  Subjects are never in a prepositional phrase. 
All of the students failed the exam. (All is the subject because students is in a prepositional phrase--of the
students). 
The Battle of the Bands was cancelled because of a bad sound system. (battle is the subject because
bands is in a prepositional phrase--of the bands).
3.  The words there or here are never subjects.
4.  If you are trying to find the subject of a question, try turning the question into a statement. 
Have you washed the car?  becomes "You have washed the car." The subject is you. 
Has Pete joined the circus? becomes "Pete has joined the circus." The subject is Pete.
5.  A verb complement can never be the subject of another verb. Example: "It was Zeke who played music
for the street dance." Zeke is the complement of the verb was, so it cannot be the subject of the verb
played. So the subject of the independent clause "It was Zeke" is it, and the subject of the adjective clause
who played music, etc. is who.
 
If you have a problem deciding what the main verb is:
Every sentence names something, and then tells us about what has been named. Not every verb in a
sentence is the main verb. There may be a number of verbs in a sentence, but the main verb is the
verb that tells us about the subject. 
 
1.  A verb shows action or a state of being.  Here are  verbs that show a state of being. Memorize
them: to be( is, are, was, were) to have , (have, has, had) to do,( do, does, did)   See Verbs
2. The main verb is sometimes more than word. For example: had been swimming, was being served, is
talking, had chosen.
3.  You can test a word by using it in a sentence: Fill in the blank with the word you think might be a
verb.  "Teddy" _____.     "Maria" _____. They _______. She ____.  Be aware that just because a word
can make sense in the blank doesn't mean it's the main verb in the sentence.  It might be serving
another function in the sentence.
4.  Does the word have number (singular form and plural form--she shops, they shop) and tense
(present, past, present & past progressive: I shop, she shopped. He is shopping, they were
shopping.) Try the different verb forms in the sentence to see if it still makes sense. 
5.  Words that are usually used as verbs don't function as verbs when there's an article (a, an, the) in
front of them.
6.  Finite verbs (the verbs that make a sentence correct, that is, the main verb) never start with the word
to. Lynne left the room to call her mother. To determine the main verb, write a sentence with each
verb. Lynne left the room. This is an acceptable sentence. Lynne to call her mother. This is not an
acceptable sentence.
7.  You cannot add verbs to a phrase to make an acceptable sentence when you are trying to determine
the finite or main verb. When you're examining a sentence to find the main verb, you have to use the
words that are in the sentence, without adding any.
8.  The main verb cannot be in a prepositional phrase. Here are some prepositions that can introduce
words that appear to be verbs, but are not: to, under, behind, from, above, beside.
Sentence Patterns
"Sentence patterns" is just another way talk about the way a sentence is put together; the order of the
elements in the sentence; sentence construction. Some sources say there are six English sentence
patterns; some say eight. A few sources list even more. Here are the ones we feel are the most
common, and the easiest to recognize:
1.  Subject + Verb (S-V)
This is the simplest kind of sentence.  It consists of a subject, a verb, and possibly some adjectives,
adverbs,  or prepositional phrases.  There are no direct objects, indirect objects, or complements.
Abraham speaks fluently.  (subject, verb, adverb)
Many of the class members write well in class.  (subject, verb, adverbs) (The "complete" subject is
"Many of the class members"--a noun phrase.)

2.  Verb + Subject (V-S)

Sentences in English usually have the subject come first, followed by the verb. But when a sentence
begins with there is, there was, there are, there were, the verb comes first, followed by the
subject. The word There is never a subject!
There is a strange shadow in the woods.  (verb, subject--the complete subject is the noun phrase a
strange shadow, adverb)
There were no leftovers after the buffet.  (verb, subject, adverb)
3.  Subject + Verb + Direct Object (S-V-DO)
Andrew composes music.  (subject, verb, direct object.)
Matthew helps others in several English practice rooms.  (subject, verb, direct object, adverb)
Helen tells jokes to make people smile.  (subject, verb, direct object, adverb)
4.  Subject + Verb + Complement (S-V-SC)
A complement is a word or group of words that describe or rename the subject. Complements follow a linking verb.  There are
two kinds of subject complements:  1) predicate nominative, which is a noun or pronoun that renames or classifies the subject
of the sentence and 2) predicate adjective, which is an adjective that describes the subject of the sentence.
Mother looks tired.  (subject, verb, complement--predicate adjective)
Some students in the class are engineers.  (the noun phrase Some students in the class is the complete subject, verb,
complement--predicate nominative)
The men are handsome, the women are clever, and the children are above-average. (compound sentence of three independent
clauses, so three subjects, three verbs, three complements--all predicate adjectives)

5.  Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (S-V-IO-DO)

An indirect object tells for whom or to whom. If the indirect object comes after the direct object (in a
prepositional phrase "to ________" or "for _______"), the sentence pattern is shown as S-V-DO-IO. 
Pronouns are usually used as indirect objects (but not always).
I sent her a birthday present.  (subject, verb, indirect object, direct object)
Jay gave his dog a bone.  (subject, verb, indirect object, direct object)
Granny left Gary all of her money.  (subject, verb, indirect object, direct object)
Granny gave every last asset to Gary. (subject, verb, direct object, indirect object in a prepositional
phrase)
6.  Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Object Complement (S-V-DO-OC)
This pattern isn't as common as the others, but it is used.  An object complement is a word or group
of words that renames, describes, or classifies the direct object.  Object complements are nouns or
adjectives and follow the object.
Debbie left the window open during the rain storm.  (subject, verb, direct object, object complement,
adverb)
The class picked Susie class representative.  (subject, verb, direct object, object complement)
Some patterns in using clauses:
1.  Independent  clause:   We are happy about the approaching holiday season.
2.  Two independent clauses joined with a coordinating conjunction:  We are happy about the approaching
holiday season, and we look forward to a prosperous new year.
3.  Two independent clauses, with no conjunction:  We are happy about the approaching holiday season;
we look forward to a prosperous new year.
4.  Two independent clauses with an independent marker (therefore, moreover, thus, consequently,
however, also are some):  We are happy about the approaching holiday season; furthermore, we look
forward to a prosperous new year.
5.  Dependent marker (because, since, while, although, if, until, when, as, after, then are some),
dependent clause, independent clause:  Because we are happy about the approaching holiday season,
we are planning many parties and gatherings with friends.
6.  Independent clause, dependent marker, dependent clause:  We are planning many parties and
gatherings with friends, because we are happy about the approaching holiday season.
7.  First part of an independent clause, unneeded clause or phrase, the rest of the independent clause: 
We are planning many parties and gatherings, including formal and informal, with friends.
8.  First part of an independent clause, essential clause or phrase, the rest of the independent clause: 
We who are happy about the approaching holiday season are planning many parties and gatherings,
formal and informal, with friends.
 
Making Subjects and Verbs Agree
  1.  Do you have compound subjects connected with and? Use a plural verb.
  Manny and Lewis play cards until 2 a.m. each Saturday night. (Manny and Lewis = they)
  She and I make cookies every weekend. (She and I = we)  
2.  Do you have two or more singular nouns or pronouns connected by or or nor? Use a singular verb.
Either a police officer or a firefighter gets cats out of trees. I forget which one does.
3.  A compound subject containing both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor
needs a verb that agrees with the noun (pronoun) that is nearest to the verb.
Neither the moon nor the stars shine as brightly as the sun. (The verb shine agrees with the plural
stars.)
Neither the stars nor the moon shines as brightly as the sun. (The verb shines is closest to the singular
noun moon.)
  4.  Doesn't (does not) is used only with a singular subject. Don't (do not) is used only with a plural
subject.
Jack doesn’t like to work the night shift. (Jack = singular he)
Those men don’t like silver jewelry; they prefer gold (those men = plural they).
5.  When phrases come between a subject and a verb, keep this in your mind: The verb must agree
with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
The song played by Enoch and Seth was lovely. (song. . . . was--singular)
Our leader, as well as his advisors, tells us to be prepared for hard times. (leader. . .tells—singular)
The authors who wrote that book are famous now. (authors. . .are—plural)
The movie, even with all those big stars, is terrible. (movie. . .is—singular)
The clowns, including the silent one, make us laugh. (clowns. . .make—plural)
6.  The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no
one are singular and require a singular verb. Pay attention to the spelling, too. Each of those words (except for no one)
is written as one word, not two. For example, the word "everyone" is spelled as one word, not as "every one".
Someone is snoring in class. (singular)
Everyone knows the truth about the matter. (singular)
7.  The relative pronouns (who, whom, which, and that) are either singular or plural, depending on the words to which they
refer.
She is a brilliant student who studies many hours each night. (She. . .is, studies—singular)
They are brilliant students who study many hours each night. (They. . .are, study—plural)
8.  Some subjects may look plural, but are considered singular (civics, mathematics, news, measles, dollars). Some may look
singular, but are considered plural (media, data).
*The news is broadcast several times a day. (news, is—singular)
Civics was my favorite subject in high school. (civics, was—singular)
The media have often created false celebrities. (media, have created—plural. The words "the media" refers to worldwide
communications via newspapers/magazines, internet, television, radio, etc.)
Scientific data confuse the layman. (data, confuse—plural. The singular form of data is datum, meaning one piece of
information, but it's not used in conversational English. It may be used in scientific and academic writing.)
Note: *The word "news" is a problem for most people learning English. Never use the article "a" before "news". Use "the", or
no article at all. Example: "I need news about weather conditions for flying." 'I need news about...' means any general
information at all, not specific news. If you say "I need the news about weather conditions that was just broadcast on TV five
minutes ago." , that means you need current specific information.
Here are more examples:
I just watched the six o'clock news.
Have you heard any news about the election? No, I don't have any news about that, because not all the votes have been
counted yet.
I think Harry has some news about the election, because he works for a TV news program.
Harry said, "No, I only have a little bit of news, because people are still voting. I'll have more news in an hour from now."
1) Marla has wonderful news! She passed the TOEFL with a very high mark. 2) That's such good news! I'm sure she's very
happy.
His boss gave him very bad news today. The company is closing, and all the employees will have to look for new jobs.
9.  Nouns such as scissors, glasses, jeans (as in blue jeans), and shears require plural verbs. (Each item just
mentioned has two parts.)
My glasses are dirty. (glasses. . .(eyeglasses) are—plural)
His jeans have a hole in both knees. (jeans. . .(pants) have—plural)
10.  If a sentence begins with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. The word there is never a subject,
so the verb has to agree with what comes after it.
There is  still a doubt  in my mind about him. (doubt is the singular subject. Use a singular verb.)
There are more things in the car that have to be brought into the house. (things is plural. Use a plural verb.)
11.  Collective nouns (such as congregation, group, herd, tribe, class, parliament, and jury) are considered singular
and take a singular verb.
The tribe (it) leaves the hunting ground every autumn.
The Senate (it) votes to pass a new tax law.
The group of travel agents (it) travels together to Spain every January. *Those agents (plural) are traveling together
to France, too.
*The plural verb is used if the individuals in the group are specifically referred to.
The jury is still discussing the details of the case. (collective = it. Use a singular verb)
The jurors are arguing about the facts of the case. (individual members = they. Use a plural verb)  
12.  Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not change the
number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject is plural, the verb must
also be plural.
Elvis, accompanied by all the musicians in the band, has left the building. (Elvis . . .has left—singular)
The cars, including Sophie’s, were given parking tickets. (cars. . .were given—plural)
1 & 2= I,YOU,WE,THEY 3=HE,SHE,IT
V.S.F= VERB IN SIMPLE FORM

AUXILIARY VERBS: Do and

Does

tense affirmativ negative Yes/No qst? Wh_qst?

e
Simple 1,2 + v.s.f 1,2 + don´t Do+1,2+v.s.f Wh+
present 3 + v.s.f + v.s.f .? Do+1,2+v.s.f.?
+s,ies,es 3+doesn Does+3+v.s.f?
´t+v.s.f. Does+3+v.s.f
?
example We study at We don´t Do you like Where do they
the UVM study at French? work?
She studies at the UNAM Does Paul What does she
the UVM
She doesn live in USA? do?
´t work
 Parts of a Sentence

Subject  
The subject of a sentence is the noun---or word group acting as a noun---that
performs the action expressed in the predicate of a sentence or clause. The
subject may be one word: Sally loves chocolate. The subject may be in a noun
phrase: 
Seeing the parade was exciting.
The black and white dog was barking fiercely at the stranger.

Predicate  
The predicate is the part of the clause or sentence that says something about
the subject. In other words, the part of the sentences that is not the subject and
its modifiers is the predicate. A predicate can be one word or several words,
not all of which are verbs.  The principal part of the predicate is the verb.
The dog sniffed.  
The dog has been sniffing. 
The dog sniffed, looked around, and growled.
Compound verbs are two or more verbs joined by a conjunction, (in this
sentence, the word and) and relating to the same subject. The subject of the
following sentences is cobra:
The cobra saw the dog coming closer and raised itself into striking position.
The cobra hissed, opened its hood, and prepared to strike.
Complete predicates are all the words in a clause or sentence except the
subject and its modifiers:
The cobra saw the dog coming closer and raised itself into striking position.
The agile dog moved from side to side rapidly, trying to corner the cobra.
Objects
The object of a sentence can be a noun, pronoun, or word group that acts as a
noun, and receives the action of a verb or is influenced by a transitive verb,
verbal (a word derived from a verb, i.e., gerund, infinitive, and participle), or a
preposition. 
1.  Direct object: Receives the action of a verb or verbal and frequently follows
it in a sentence. Direct objects are often needed to complete the thought of a
sentence. "Rueben reads the newspaper."  "Reuben reads" is a complete
sentence, but it doesn't  express the complete thought. Reuben reads
what? He reads the newspaper.
2.  Indirect object: Tells for whom, to whom, or to what something is
done. "Reuben reads his grandmother the newspaper." Reuben reads the
newspaper to whom? to his grandmother. Grandmother is the indirect
object. Pronouns are also used as indirect objects: "Reuben reads her the
newspaper."  Indirect objects often come between the verb and the direct
object. 
 The sentence could also be: "Reuben reads the newspaper to his
grandmother." The prepositional phrase to his grandmother is the indirect
object of the sentence.
3.  Object of Preposition:  Objects follow prepositions and are linked by them to
the rest of the sentence.
Complements  
A word or word group that completes the meaning of a subject, an object, or a
verb.
1. Subject complement: Follows a linking verb and modifies or refers to the
subject. It may be a noun (also known as a predicate noun or nominative) or an
adjective (also known as a predicate adjective). 
Olivia is pretty. (The adjective pretty is a subject complement; it describes the
subject, Olivia.)
Annie is an English teacher. (The noun phrase English teacher is also a subject
complement; it describes Annie.)
2. Object complement: Follows and modifies or refers to a direct object.  
Blake considers American television silly. (television is the direct object. silly
describes television; it is the object complement.)
The judges elected her Miss Brazil, 2002. (Miss Brazil is the object
complement, describing the direct object her.)
3. Verb complement: This is a direct or indirect object of a verb. It may be a
noun, pronoun, or word or word group acting as a noun. 
Aunt Gertie gave Patty my dessert. (Patty  is the indirect object, my dessert is
the direct object of the verb gave. Both are considered verb complements.)
Phrases
A group of related words that lacks a subject, or a predicate, or both---and that acts as a single part of
speech. 
1. Prepositional phrase: Consists of a preposition and its objects and modifiers. The object of the
preposition is a noun or something acting as a noun (for instance, a gerund). 
The repairman is at the door. (at is a preposition; door is a noun, and is the object of the preposition.)
  Prepositional phrases are almost always used as adjectives or adverbs. If the phrase is being used
as an adjective, it comes after the noun or pronoun it is describing.  
Discretion is the better part of valor. (of is the preposition; valor is a noun and is the object of the
preposition. The phrase describes the word part.)
Remember that when using a pronoun in a prepositional phrase, you must use the objective case (me,
her, him, us, them, whom.) you is the same in the subjective and objective case.
2. Noun phrase: Noun phrases are composed of  a noun (or pronoun) and its modifiers. They are
used as subjects, objects, or complements.
The strange, eerie moaning made the dog's hackles raise. (noun phrase as subject)
Zeke likes a large serving of spicy food for lunch. (noun phrase as object)
The beach is a great spot for vacations. (noun phrase as complement)
3. Verb phrase: A group of words that include a verb and any auxiliary verbs that serve as the
predicate of a sentence or clause.  
Gary has a toothache.
Gary was having a toothache.
Gary has already had a toothache.
Gary must have been having a toothache.
The pattern for a verb phrase can be as long as this : auxiliary/modal verb + auxiliary verb + auxiliary
verb + main verb
4. Verbal phrase: Consists of a verbal (a word derived from a verb) and any
modifiers. Verbal phrases are not the main verb or predicate in a sentence. The
three types of verbals used in these phrases are present participles (ing form of a
verb), past participles (ed or en form of a verb), and infinitives (to + the base form of
a verb).
a. Infinitive phrase: Consists of an infinitive and its object, plus any modifiers. 
Infinitive phrases are used as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. 
To ignore good manners is the sign of a boorish person. (to ignore good manners is
acting as a noun and is the subject of the sentence.)
 b. Participial phrase: Consists of a participle and its object, plus any
modifiers. Participial phrases are used as adjectives. 
Yelling and screaming, Clarise ran from the mouse. (yelling and screaming describes
Clarise.) 
The old teacher, exhausted and annoyed from too many years in the classroom,
retired to a deserted island. (exhausted and annoyed from too many years in the
classroom describes the teacher. Notice that participial phrases can use either the
present (ing) or the past (ed/en) form of a verb.)
 5.  Gerund phrase: Consists of a gerund (the -ing form of a verb used as a noun)
and its objects, plus any modifiers. A gerund phrase is used as a noun; subject,
complement, direct object, indirect object, or object of a preposition.  
Falling asleep while your mother-in-law is showing vacation photos can get you in 
trouble. (The gerund is falling, and the gerund phrase acts as the subject of the
sentence.)
Samantha's favorite activity is swimming with her friends. (The gerund is swimming,
and the phrase acts as a complement.)
Clauses
 A group of related words containing a subject and a predicate.
1. Main (independent) clause: An independent clause can stand by itself as a
complete sentence. 
Amos left work early because his mother was ill. (Amos left work early is a
complete sentence.)
Maggie loves pizza when it has extra cheese. (Maggie loves pizza is a
complete thought.)
Charlie has had a backache because he tried to lift the cow. (Charlie has had a
backache is a complete thought.)
 2. Subordinate (dependent) clause: A subordinate clause cannot stand by
itself as a complete sentence. 
Amos left work early because his mother was ill. (because his mother was ill is
not a complete thought, so it cannot stand alone as a sentence.)
Maggie loves pizza when it has extra cheese. (when it has extra cheese is not
a complete thought.)
Since he tried to lift the cow, Charlie has had a backache. (Since he tried to lift
the cow is not a complete thought.)
Subordinate, or dependent clauses are introduced by using a subordinating
conjunction. A subordinating conjunction is a word which joins a dependent clause
and an independent clause together. Here are some subordinating conjunctions:**

Indicates time Indicates Place Indicates Manner Indicates Indicates Indicates

Reason Condition Concession

After where As if because If although

Before wherever As though since Unless though

Since So that until Even

though
When why In case that while

Whenever In order that Provided whereas

that
While Now that Assuming Rather than
that
Until As Even if

as to Only if ; if
only
Once Whether or
not
As long as that