19CS697 -

Wireless Networks
Unit IV - WIRELESS
NETWORK APPLICATIONS

Dr.S.Kavi Priya
[email protected]
9842295563
Mobile Applications
and Mobile IP
Mobile Application Platforms
• limited computing power and do not run batch
programs
• interfaces (UIs) are typically vastly different -
include a touchscreen guided by touch or voice
command, and user
• mobile platforms typically run a core system
(such as Android or iOS) - allow third parties to
extend the platform with applications that run
on top of the framework (simply called “apps”)
Mobile Application Platforms
• Resource Constraints : powered almost
exclusively by batteries, have smaller amount of
RAM and internal memory, with limited computing
power for graphics and computation - provide user
interfaces to applications that interface to remote
cloud services
• The Interaction Layer : Along with input from
hardware buttons, users also typically interact with
a device by touch (gestures, for example) or voice
command
Mobile Application Platforms
• Two Example Hardware Stacks:
– Apple’s iOS (running on iPads and iPhones) : iOS
Apps written in Objective C and Swift, compiled using
Apple’s compiler, make use of iOS application framework,
through which they display GUI output, access sensory
(touch, location, voice) input, and communicate with
networks
– Google’s Android : widely installed, unique ROM to install
system apps, Android system allows programmers to write
in Java, but the Java bytecode (emitted by the Java
compiler) is translated to Dalvik virtual machine (DVM)
bytecode
 Mobile App Development
• frameworks typically allow the programmer to access
– GUI interaction with the user
– Sensor data available (GPS, acceleration, etc.)
– Authentication and account access
– Interaction with remote servers
• Development Environments
– Google supports Java-Based Android Studio and Eclipse.
– iOS applications are written using XCode
Android System Architecture
 Android Applications
• Each Android application consists of one or more instances of one or more of four
• Activities: An activity corresponds to a single screen visible as a user interface. For
example, an e-mail application might have one activity that shows a list of new e- mails,
another activity to compose an e- mail, and another activity for reading e- mails.
Activities can be exported/imported E.g. a camera application can start the activity in
the e- mail application that composes a new mail, in order for the user to share a
picture.
• Services: Services are typically used to perform background operations that take a
considerable amount of time to finish. This ensures faster responsiveness, for the main
thread (aka UI thread) of an application, with which the user is directly interacting. For
example, a service might create a thread or process to play music in the background
while the user is in a different application, or it might create a thread to fetch data over
the network without blocking user interaction with an activity. A service may be invoked
by an application. Additionally, there are system services that run for the entire lifetime
of the Android system, such as Power Manager, Battery, and Vibrator services.
 Android Applications
• Content providers: A content provider acts as an interface
to application data that can be used by the application. One
category of managed data is private data, which is used only
by the application containing the content provider. For
example, the Notepad application uses a content provider to
save notes. The other category is shared data, accessible by
multiple applications. This category includes data stored in
file systems, an SQLite database, on the Web, or any other
persistent storage location your application can access
• Broadcast receivers: A broadcast receiver responds to
system- wide broadcast announcements. A broadcast can
originate from another application, such as to let other
applications know that some data has been downloaded to
the device and is available for them to use, or from the
system, for example a low- battery warning
The Activity Lifecycle
 Mobile Application Deployment
• Deployment to Markets
• User Reviews and Marketing
• Quality Control
Mobile IP
 Mobile IP
• When IP datagrams are exchanged over a connection between the mobile node and another
host the following operations occur:
1. Server X transmits an IP datagram destined for mobile node A, with A’s home address in the
IP header. The IP datagram is routed to A’s home network.
2. At the home network, the home agent intercepts the incoming IP datagram. The home agent
encapsulates the entire datagram inside a new IP datagram that has A’s care- of address in
the header, and retransmits the datagram. The use of an outer IP datagram with a different
destination IP address is known as tunneling. This IP datagram is routed to the foreign
agent.
3. The foreign agent strips off the outer IP header, encapsulates the original IP datagram in a
network-level PDU (e.g., a LAN LLC frame), and delivers the original datagram to A across
the foreign network.
4. When A sends IP traffic to X, it uses X’s IP address. In our example, this is a fixed address;
that is, X is not a mobile node. Each IP datagram is sent by A to a router on the foreign
network for routing to X. Typically, this router is also the foreign agent.
5. The IP datagram from A to X travels directly across the Internet to X, using X’s IP address.
 Mobile IP
• To support the operations Mobile IP includes three basic capabilities:
• Discovery: A mobile node uses a discovery procedure to identify prospective
home agents and foreign agents.
• Registration: A mobile node uses an authenticated registration procedure to
inform its home agent of its care- of address.
• Tunneling: Tunneling is used to forward IP datagrams from a home address
to a care- of address.
 Mobile IP - Discovery
• a router or other network node that can act as an agent periodically issues a
router advertisement ICMP message with an advertisement extension
• The router advertisement portion of the message includes the IP address of
the router.
• A mobile node listens for these agent advertisement messages. Because a
foreign agent could be on the mobile node’s home network (set up to serve
visiting mobile nodes), the arrival of an agent advertisement does not
necessarily tell the mobile node that it is on a foreign network.
• The mobile node must compare the network portion of the router’s IP address
with the network portion of its own home address. If these network portions do
not match, then the mobile node is on a foreign network.
 Mobile IP - Discovery
• agent advertisement extension follows the ICMP router advertisement fields that includes the
following 1-bit flags:
R: Registration with this foreign agent is required (or another foreign agent on this network). Even
those mobile nodes that have already acquired a care-of address from this foreign agent must
reregister.
B: Busy. The foreign agent will not accept registrations from additional mobile nodes.
H: This agent offers services as a home agent on this network.
F: This agent offers services as a foreign agent on this network.
M: This agent can receive tunneled IP datagrams that use minimal encapsulation, explained
subsequently.
G: This agent can receive tunneled IP datagrams that use generic routing encapsulation (GRE)
encapsulation, explained subsequently.
r: reserved.
T: Foreign agent supports reverse tunneling.
 Mobile IP - Agent Solicitation
• Foreign agents are expected to issue agent advertisement messages periodically. If a
mobile node needs agent information immediately, it c issue an ICMP router
solicitation message.
• Any agent receiving this message will then issue an agent advertisement
 Mobile IP - Move Detection
• mobile node may move from one network to another due to some handoff mechanism,
without the IP level being aware of it. The agent discovery process is intended to enable the
agent to detect such a move. The agent may use one of two algorithms for this purpose:
• Use of lifetime field: When a mobile node receives an agent advertisement from a foreign
agent that it is currently using or that it is now going to register with, it records the lifetime
field as a timer. If the timer expires before the mobile node receives another agent
advertisement from the agent, then the node assumes that it has lost contact with that agent.
If, in the meantime, the mobile node has received an agent advertisement from another
agent and that advertisement has not yet expired, the mobile node can register with this
new agent. Otherwise, the mobile node should use agent solicitation to find an agent.
• Use of network prefix: The mobile node checks whether any newly received agent
advertisement is on the same network as the node’s current care- of address. If it is not, the
mobile node assumes that it has moved and may register with the agent whose
advertisement the mobile node has just received.
 Mobile IP - Co-Located Addresses
• the care- of address is an IP address for the foreign agent. This foreign agent will
receive datagrams at this care-of address, intended for the mobile node, and then
forward them across the foreign network to the mobile node.
• However, in some cases a mobile node may move to a network that has no foreign
agents or on which all foreign agents are busy. As an alternative, the mobile node may
act as its own foreign agent by using a co-located care-of address.
• A co-located care-of address is an IP address obtained by the mobile node that is
associated with the mobile node’s current interface to a network.
• One means is to dynamically acquire a temporary IP address through an Internet
service such as Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
• Another alternative is that the co-located ddress may be owned by the mobile node as a
long-term address for use only while visiting a given foreign network
 Mobile IP - Registration
• Once a mobile node has recognized that it is on a foreign network and has acquired a
care-of address, it needs to alert a home agent on its home network and request that the
home agent forward its IP traffic. The registration process involves four steps:
1. The mobile node requests the forwarding service by sending a registration request to the
foreign agent that the mobile node wants to use.
2. The foreign agent relays this request to the mobile node’s home agent.
3. The home agent either accepts or denies the request and sends a registration reply to the
foreign agent.
4. The foreign agent relays this reply to the mobile node.
 Mobile IP - Registration
• The registration request message consists of the following fields:
• Type: 1, indicates that this is a registration request.
• S: Simultaneous bindings. The mobile node is requesting that the home agent retain its prior mobility bindings. When simultaneous bindings are in effect, the
home agent will forward multiple copies of the IP datagram, one to each care-of address currently registered for this mobile node. Multiple simultaneous bindings
can be useful in wireless handoff situations, to improve reliability.
• B: Broadcast datagrams. Indicates that the mobile node would like to receive copies of broadcast datagrams that it would have received if it were attached to its
home network.
• D: Decapsulation by mobile node. The mobile node is using a co-located care-of address and will decapsulate its own tunneled IP datagrams.
• M: Indicates that the home agent should use minimal encapsulation, explained subsequently.
• G: Indicates that the home agent should use GRE encapsulation, explained subsequently.
• r: Reserved.
• T: Reverse tunneling requested.
• x: Reserved.
• Lifetime: The number of seconds before the registration is considered expired. A value of zero is a request for de-registration.
• Home Address: The home IP address of the mobile node. The home agent can expect to receive IP datagrams with this as a destination address, and must
forward those to the care- of address.
• Home Agent: The IP address of the mobile node’s home agent. This informs the foreign agent of the address to which this request should be relayed.
• Care-of Address: The IP address at this end of the tunnel. The home agent should forward IP datagrams that it receives with mobile node’s home address to this
destination address.
• Identification: A 64-bit number generated by the mobile node, used for matching registration requests to registration replies and for security purposes, as
explained subsequently.
• Extensions: The only extension so far defined is the authentication extension, explained subsequently.
Mobile IP - Registration
 Mobile IP - Registration
• The registration reply message consists of the following fields:
• Type: 3, indicates that this is a registration reply.
• Code: Indicates result of the registration request
• Lifetime: If the code field indicates that the registration was accepted, the number of
seconds before the registration is considered expired. A value of zero indicates that the
mobile node has been de-registered.
• Home Address: The home IP address of the mobile node.
• Home Agent: The IP address of the mobile node’s home agent.
• Identification: A 64-bit number used for matching registration requests to registration
replies.
• Extensions: The only extension so far defined is the authentication extension,
explained subsequently.
 Mobile IP - Securing the Registration Procedure
• Mobile IP is designed to resist two types of attacks:
– A node may pretend to be a foreign agent and send a registration request to a home
agent so as to divert traffic intended for a mobile node to itself.
– A malicious agent may replay old registration messages, effectively cutting the mobile
node from the network.
• For purposes of message authentication, each registration request and reply contains an
authentication extension which includes the following fields:
– Security Parameter Index (SPI): An index that identifies a security context between a pair of nodes.
This security context is configured so that the two nodes share a secret key and parameters relevant to this
association (e.g., authentication algorithm).
– Authenticator: A code used to authenticate the message. The sender inserts this code into the message
using a shared secret key. The receiver uses the code to ensure that the message has not been altered or
delayed. The authenticator protects the entire registration request or reply message, any extensions prior to
this extension, and the type and length fields of this extension.
 Mobile IP - Securing the Registration Procedure

• Three types of authentication extensions are defined as

follows:
– Mobile- home: This extension must be present and provides for
authentication of the registration messages between the mobile node and
the home agent.
– Mobile- foreign: The extension may be present when a security
association exists between the mobile node and the foreign agent. The
foreign agent will strip this extension off before relaying a request
message to the home agent and add this extension to a reply message
coming from a home agent.
– Foreign- home: The extension may be present when a security association
exists between the foreign agent and the home agent..
 Mobile IP - Tunneling
• Once a mobile node is registered with a home agent, the
home agent must be able to intercept IP datagrams sent
to the mobile node’s home address so that these
datagrams can be forwarded via tunneling
 Mobile IP - Tunneling
• To forward an IP datagram to a care-of address, the home agent
puts the entire IP datagram into an outer IP datagram. This is a
form of encapsulation, just as placing an IP header in front of a
TCP segment encapsulates the TCP segment in an IP datagram.
Three options for encapsulation are allowed for Mobile IP:
– IP-within-IP encapsulation: This is the simplest approach, defined in
RFC 2003.
– Minimal encapsulation: This approach involves fewer fields, defined in
RFC 2004.
– Generic routing encapsulation: This is a generic encapsulation
procedure that was developed prior to the development of Mobile IP,
defined in RFC 1701
Mobile IP - Tunneling
 LONG RANGE COMMUNICATIONS

• Rich History
• Satellite
– Communications
– GPS
– Television

Long Range Communications 16-

29
 SATELLITE-RELATED TERMS
• Earth Stations – antenna systems on or near earth
• Uplink – transmission from an earth station to a
satellite
• Downlink – transmission from a satellite to an earth
station
• Transponder – electronics in the satellite that
convert uplink signals to downlink signals

Long Range Communications 16-

30
CLASSICAL SATELLITE SYSTEMS
Inter Satellite Link
(ISL)
Mobile User
Link (MUL) MUL
Gateway Link
(GWL) GWL

small cells
(spotbeams)

base station
or gateway
footprint

ISDN PSTN GSM

PSTN: Public Switched User data

Telephone Network

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, MC SS02 5.

http://www.jochenschiller.de/ 31
 BASICS
• Satellites in circular orbits
– attractive force Fg = m g (R/r)²
– centrifugal force Fc = m r ²
– m: mass of the satellite
– R: radius of the earth (R = 6370 km)
– r: distance to the center of the earth
– g: acceleration of gravity (g = 9.81 m/s²)
– : angular velocity ( = 2  f, f: rotation frequency)
• Stable orbit
– Fg = F c gR 2

r3
(2 f )2
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, MC SS02 5.
http://www.jochenschiller.de/ 32
 WAYS TO CATEGORIZE
COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITES
• Coverage area
– Global, regional, national
• Service type
– Fixed service satellite (FSS)
– Broadcast service satellite (BSS)
– Mobile service satellite (MSS)
• General usage
– Commercial, military, amateur,
experimental

Long Range Communications 16-33

 CLASSIFICATION OF SATELLITE
ORBITS
• Circular or elliptical orbit
– Circular with center at earth’s center
– Elliptical with one foci at earth’s center
• Orbit around earth in different planes
– Equatorial orbit above earth’s equator
– Polar orbit passes over both poles
– Other orbits referred to as inclined
orbits
• Altitude of satellites
– Geostationary orbit (GEO)
– Medium earth orbit (MEO)
– Low earth orbit (LEO)
Long Range Communications 16-34
 GEOMETRY TERMS
• Elevation angle - the angle from the horizontal to the
point on the center of the main beam of the antenna
when the antenna is pointed directly at the satellite
• Minimum elevation angle
• Coverage angle - the measure of the portion of the
earth's surface visible to the satellite

Long Range Communications 16-35

 MINIMUM ELEVATION ANGLE
• Reasons affecting minimum elevation angle of
earth station’s antenna (>0o)
– Buildings, trees, and other terrestrial objects block
the line of sight
– Atmospheric attenuation is greater at low elevation
angles
– Electrical noise generated by the earth's heat near
its surface adversely affects reception

Long Range Communications 16-36

 𝑅sin(𝖺)
= = 𝑑 sin(𝛽)
𝑅+ℎ = =
sin 𝜃 + 𝜋2 𝑅+ℎ
sin 𝜃 + 2𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 −
2 𝛽−𝜃 sin(𝛽)
𝜋 =
cos(𝜃)
sin𝜃 + 2 (𝑅 + ℎ) ∙ sin(𝛽)
cos(𝛽 + 𝜃) 𝑑=
= cos(𝜃)
cos(𝜃)
𝑅∙
= sin(𝛽)
sin(𝛼)

FIGURE 16.1 COVERAGE AND ELEVATION

ANGLES Long Range Communications 16-37
 ELEVATION
Elevation:
angle  between center of satellite beam
and surface

minimal elevation:
elevation needed at least 
to communicate with the satellite

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, MC SS02 5.38

http://www.jochenschiller.de/
 INCLINATION
plane of satellite orbit

satellite orbit

perigee


inclination 

equatorial plane

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, MC SS02 5.39

http://www.jochenschiller.de/
FIGURE 16.2 SATELLITE PARAMETERS AS A FUNCTION
OF ORBITAL HEIGHT
Long Range Communications 16-13
 SATELLITE PERIOD AND ORBITS

24 satellite
velocity [ x1000 km/h] period [h]
20

16

12

4
synchronous distance
35,786 km

10 20 30 40 x106 m
radius

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, MC SS02 5.41

http://www.jochenschiller.de/
 ORBITS
GEO (Inmarsat)

HEO MEO (Inmarsat)

LEO inner and outer

(Glo Van Allen belts
balst
ar,
Irdiu earth
m)
1000
10000

Van-Allen-Belts: 35768
km
ionized particles
2000 - 6000 km and
15000 - 30000 km
above earth surface

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, MC SS02 5.42

http://www.jochenschiller.de/
 GEO ORBIT
• Advantages of the the GEO orbit
– No problem with frequency changes
– Tracking of the satellite is simplified
– High coverage area
• Disadvantages of the GEO orbit
– Weak signal after traveling over 35,000
km
– Polar regions are poorly served
– Signal sending delay is substantial

Long Range Communications 16-43

FIGURE 16.3 GEOSTATIONARY EARTH ORBIT
(GEO) Long Range Communications 16-44
 LEO SATELLITE
CHARACTERISTICS
• Circular/slightly elliptical orbit under 2000 km
• Orbit period ranges from 1.5 to 2 hours
• Diameter of coverage is about 8000 km
• Round-trip signal propagation delay less than 20
ms
• Maximum satellite visible time up to 20 min
• System must cope with large Doppler shifts
• Atmospheric drag results in orbital deterioration

Long Range Communications 16-45

FIGURE 16.4 LEO AND MEO
ORBITS Long Range Communications 16-46
 LEO CATEGORIES
• Little LEOs
– Frequencies below 1 GHz
– 5MHz of bandwidth
– Data rates up to 10 kbps
– Aimed at paging, tracking, and low-rate messaging
• Big LEOs
– Frequencies above 1 GHz
– Support data rates up to a few megabits per sec
– Offer same services as little LEOs in addition to voice
and positioning services

Long Range Communications 16-47

 MEO SATELLITE
CHARACTERISTICS
• Circular orbit at an altitude in the range of 5000 to
12,000 km
• Orbit period of 6 hours
• Diameter of coverage is 10,000 to 15,000 km
• Round trip signal propagation delay less than 50
ms
• Maximum satellite visible time is a few hours

Long Range Communications 16-48

FREQUENCY BANDS AVAILABLE
FOR SATELLITE
COMMUNICATIONS

Long Range Communications 16-49

 SATELLITE LINK PERFORMANCE
FACTORS
• Distance between earth station antenna and satellite
antenna
• For downlink, terrestrial distance between earth
station antenna and “aim point” of satellite
– Displayed as a satellite footprint
• Atmospheric attenuation
– Affected by oxygen, water, angle of elevation, and
higher frequencies

Long Range Communications 16-50

 LINK BUDGET OF SATELLITES
• Parameters like attenuation or received power determined by four
parameters:
L: Loss
 sending power f: carrier frequency
 gain of sending antenna r: distance
c: speed of light
 distance between sender
and receiver 2
 gain of receiving antenna  4r f 
L   c 
• Problems
 varying strength of received signal due to multipath propagation
 interruptions due to shadowing of signal (no LOS)
• Possible solutions
 Link Margin to eliminate variations in signal strength
 satellite diversity (usage of several visible satellites at the same
time) helps to use less sending power

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, MC SS02 5.24

http://www.jochenschiller.de/
FIGURE 16.5 MINIMUM FREE SPACE LOSS AS A FUNCTION
OF ORBITAL HEIGHT
Long Range Communications 16-52
FIGURE 16.6 TYPICAL SATELLITE
FOOTPRINT Long Range Communications 16-53
 ATMOSPHERI C A T A
the signal in %
ttenu ation of
Example: satellite systems at 4-6

TENUATION 50
GHz

40 rain absorption

30
fog absorption


20

10
atmospheric
absorption

5° 20° 30° 40° 50°

10° elevation of the
satellite
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, MC SS02 5.27
http://www.jochenschiller.de/
FIGURE 16.7 SIGNAL ATTENUATION DUE
TO ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION (C
Long Range Communications 16-55
BAND)
FIGURE 16.8 SATELLITE
COMMUNICATION
Long Range Communications 16-56
CONFIGURATIONS
FIGURE 16.9 TYPICAL VSAT
CONFIGURATION Long Range Communications 16-57
 CAPACITY ALLOCATION
STRATEGIES
• Frequency division multiple access
(FDMA)
• Time division multiple access (TDMA)
• Code division multiple access (CDMA)

Long Range Communications 16-58

 FREQUENCY-DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
• Alternative uses of channels in point-to-point
configuration
– 1200 voice-frequency (VF) voice channels
– One 50-Mbps data stream
– 16 channels of 1.544 Mbps each
– 400 channels of 64 kbps each
– 600 channels of 40 kbps each
– One analog video signal
– Six to nine digital video signals

Long Range Communications 16-59

FIGURE 16.10 TYPICAL SATELLITE TRANSPONDER
FREQUENCY PLAN FOR THE DOWNLINK
CHANNELS Long Range Communications 16-60
 FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLE
ACCESS
• Factors which limit the number of
subchannels provided within a satellite
channel via FDMA
– Thermal noise
– Intermodulation noise
– Crosstalk

Long Range Communications 16-61

FIGURE 16.11 FIXED-ASSIGNMENT FDMA FORMAT
FOR SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Long Range Communications 16-62
 FORMS OF FDMA
• Fixed-assignment multiple access (FAMA)
– The assignment of capacity is distributed in a fixed
manner among multiple stations
– Demand may fluctuate
– Results in the significant underuse of capacity
• Demand-assignment multiple access (DAMA)
– Capacity assignment is changed as needed to respond
optimally to demand changes among the multiple stations

Long Range Communications 16-63

REASONS FOR INCREASING USE OF
TDM TECHNIQUES
• Cost of digital components continues to
drop
• Advantages of digital components
– Use of error correction
• Increased efficiency of TDM
– Lack of intermodulation noise

Long Range Communications 16-64

FIGURE 16.12 EXAMPLE OF TDMA FRAME
FORMAT Long Range Communications 16-65
FIGURE 16.13 TDMA
OPERATION Long Range Communications 16-66
 FIGURE 16.14 RELATIVE EFFICIENCY FOR
VARIOUS SATELLITE CAPACITY ALLOCATION
SCHEMES Long Range Communications 16-67
FIGURE 16.15 SS/TDMA
OPERATION Long Range Communications 16-68
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
• GPS was developed by U.S. Department of Defense
• 24 MEO satellites
– Six orbital planes at 20,350 km altitude
– Orbit every 12 hours
• GPS receiver must observe at least 4 satellites
– Three provide distance measurement
– Intersection of three spheres provides two points of
intersection, one of which is unrealistic
– Fourth satellite is used to adjust timing offsets

Long Range Communications 16-69

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
• Uses Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
– Can keep from unauthorized use
• Until 2000, GPS signals were intentionally degraded
– Low received signal energy is required
– All satellites can use the same frequency band
• Complexities of operation
– Knowing satellite locations
– Atmospheric effects
– Differential GPS can provide more accuracy if
a terrestrial reference point is also known

Long Range Communications 16-70

FIGURE 16.16 GLOBAL POSITIONING
SYSTEM Long Range Communications 16-71
 DIRECT BROADCAST SATELLITE

• Provides television services

• C-band (4-8 MHz) requires 3 m dishes
• Ku band (12-18 GHz) requires 1 m dishes
• Providers send signals up to satellites
– Satellites rebroadcast on various frequencies
– Receivers decrypt by permission of service
provider
• High compression for best use of the channel
Long Range Communications 16-72
FIGURE 16.17 DIRECT BROADCAST
SATELLITE Long Range Communications 16-73
 LINK BUDGET
• Pr = Pt - 92.4 - 20 Log F(GHz) - 20 Log D(Km) - At + Gt + Gr

• G- Gain of antenna t – transmission; r–

reception
• At – atmospheric attenuation (dust, rain)

• D = 36000 Km -> 20 LogD = 91,1

• F= 2 GHz -> 20 LogF = 6
• A=10 dB
• Gt = Gr = 30 dBi
• Pt = 40 dBm (10 W) -> Pr = - 99,5 dBm

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, MC SS02 5.74

http://www.jochenschiller.de/
 ANGLES - DIVERGENCE & SPOT SIZE
1° ≈ 17 mrad → 1 mrad ≈
0.0573°
Small angle approximation:
Angle (in milliradians) * Range (km)= Spot Size
(m)
1 mrad 1m

1 km

Divergence Range Spot Diameter

1 mrad 36000 km 36 Km
17 mrad (1 deg) 36000 km 612 Km

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, MC SS02 5.75

http://www.jochenschiller.de/
 ANTENNA GAIN VS DIVERGENCE
• Gain(dBi) = 10 Log (2 / Div) = 10 Log (360º/Divº)
• Isotropic Antenna -> Div = 2 / 360º (both Vert. and Hor.)
Gain(dBi) = 0

Cisco AIR-ANT3338
21dBi Parabolic Dish
Azimuth 3dB BW =12º
Elevation 3dB BW =12º

• Examples:
• Div =2º -> Gain(dBi) = 22,6 dBi (2x 22,6 if in both planes)
• Div =4º -> Gain(dBi) = 19,6 dBi
• Div =8º -> Gain(dBi) = 16,6 dBi
• Div=12º -> Gain(dBi) = 14,7 dBi (Vert and Hor: 14,7 x 2 = 29,4
dBi)
• Note: Cisco’s antenna with Div= 12º has a gain of 21 dBi (vs 29.4 dBi in theory) due to losses in other directions (side lobes).

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, MC SS02 5.76

http://www.jochenschiller.de/
 RECEIVED POWER BASED ON
ANTENNA APERTURE AREA (AE)
• Ae = Aphysical * ( - Antenna efficiency 50%-80%)

• When Tx and Rx antennas are equal:
– Pr = Pt – 10 Log(4 * Footprint / (PI2 *Ae)) – At

• Pt = 40dBm (10W)
• Footprint = 471 716 Km2 (PI x 387.5km x 387.5km) (Iberian peninsula 582 860 km2)
• Aphy = 1m2 ;  = 50%
• At = 10 dB
• Pr = 40 – 115.6 -10 = - 85.6 dBm

1.2º 775 Km

36000 Km

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, MC SS02 5.77

http://www.jochenschiller.de/