UCCM1153

Introduction to Calculus
and Applications
 Chapter 1

Functions and
Models
 Contents
1.1 Functions
1.2 Models and Curve Fitting
1.3 Transformations, Combinations,
Composition and Graphs of Functions
1.4 Exponential Functions
1.5 Inverse Functions and Logarithms
1.6 Parametric Curves
 1.1 Functions

• Definitions
• Representations of Functions
• Piecewise Defined Functions
• Even and Odd Functions
• Increasing and Decreasing Functions
 Goals
• Learn to represent functions using
Words, Tables of values, Graphs and Formulas

• Discuss piecewise defined functions, including

the absolute value function
• Study symmetry of functions, including even
and odd functions
• Discuss increasing and decreasing functions
 Functions
• A function is a rule that assigns exactly one element y in a set
B to each element x in a set A.
x Function y
f

x
Set A y Set B

Notation: y  f (x)
 x is an independent variable
 y is an dependent variable.
E.g.:The function which square a number and adds on 5, can be
written as f ( x)  x 2  5.
 Functions(Cont’)
The phrase "y is a function of x" means that the value of y
depends upon the value of x, so:
• y can be written in terms of x (e.g. y = 3x ).
• If f (x) = 3x, and y is a function of x (i.e. y = f (x) ), then the
value of y when x is 4 is f (4), which is found by replacing x"s
by 4"s .
• One value of x is assigned to exactly one value of y.

 E.g.: If f (x) = 3x + 4, find f (5) and f (x + 1).

f (5) = 3(5) + 4 = 19

f (x + 1) = 3(x + 1) + 4 = 3x + 3 + 4 = 3x + 7
Domain and Range for a function y = f (x)
• Domain is the possible values can be taken by
independent variable, x.

• Range of f is the set of all possible values of f(x) as x

varies throughout the domain.

• The most common method for visualizing a function is

its graph.

• If f is a function with domain A, then its graph is the set

of ordered pairs {(x, f (x))| x A}

 Graph of a Function
• The graph of a function f is the set of ordered
pairs  x , f  x | x  A .
• So the graph consists of all points (x, y) where y
= f(x) and x is in the domain of f .
• From the graph of f we can read…
– the value of f(x) as being the height of the graph
above the point x ;
– the domain and range of f ,
Graph of a Function (Cont’)
 Representations of Functions
• Functions can be represented in four ways:
– Verbally (that is, by a description in words)
– Numerically (by a table of values)
– Visually (by a graph)
– Algebraically (by an explicit formula)
• It is often useful to convert from one
representation to another, where possible.
Representations of Functions (Cont’)
– The world population as a function of time was
given verbally.
– The area of a circle as a function of its radius (r)
was given algebraically, i.e. A  r 2
– The cost of mailing a letter as a function of
weight was also given numerically in a table
shown :
 Representations (cont’d)
– The vertical acceleration of the ground in an
earthquake, as a function of time, was given
visually.
 Example A
• The data shown give the
concentration (in moles per
liter) after t minutes of an
acid used in an experiment.
– Use the data to draw a rough
graph of the concentration
function, and then…
– …use this graph to estimate the concentration
after 5 minutes.
 Example A (Cont’)

Solution
• Then we use the graph to estimate that the
concentration after 5 minutes is
C(5) ≈ 0.035 mole/liter.

FUNCTIONS & MODELS

 Examples

Example 1.1 Example 1.2

Range, R: 0,2
Range, R: 1,  

Domain, D:  Domain, D: t  2 , t  2
 Examples (Cont’)
Example 1.3
Sketch the graph and find the domain and range of each
function.
(a) f (x) = 2x-1

Domain: 
Range: 
 Examples (Cont’)
1
(b) f (x) =
x
Domain : ( ,0)  (0, )

Range : (,0)  (0, )

2
(c) f ( x )  x

Domain: 
Range:  y | y  0  [0, )
 Examples (Cont’)
(d) f ( x)  x  2
Domain: [ 2, )
Range: [0, )

(e) f ( x)  x  1
x 1
Domain: x : x  1   ,1  1, 
Range:
xy  x  y  1
x 1
 y x y  1  y  1
x 1
y 1
x  1y  x  1 x
y 1
xy  y  x  1
y : y  1   ,1  1, 
 Example

• The graph of a function f

is shown at right.
a) Find the values of f(1)
and f(5) .
b) What are the domain and
range of f ?
 Example (cont’d)
• Solution
a) We see from the figure that the point (1, 3) lies
on the graph of f , so the value of f at 1 is f(1)
=3.
• Likewise when x = 5 , the graph lies about 0.7 unit
below the x-axis, so we estimate that
f(5) ≈ – 0.7 .
b) Since f(x) is defined when 0 ≤ x ≤ 7 , the
domain of f is the closed interval [0, 7] . Also, f
takes on all values from – 2 to 4, so the range of
is [– 2, 4] .
 Piecewise-defined functions
• The function with different formulas in different parts of its
domain.
Example 1.4
1  x, if x  1
f ( x)   2 Evaluate f (0), f (1), and f (2) and sketch
x , if x  1
the graph.
• Since 0  1, we have f (0) = 1 - 0 = 1.
• Since 1  1, we have f (1) = 1 - 1 = 0.
• Since 2 > 1, we have f (2) = 22 = 4.
• If x  1 , then f (x) = 1 – x. So, the part of the graph of f that
lies to the left of the vertical line x = 1 must coincide with the
line y = 1 - x, which has slope -1 and y-intercept 1.
 Piecewise-defined functions (Cont’)
• If x > 1, then f (x) = x2. So, the part of the graph of f that lies to the
right of the line x = 1 must coincide with the graph of y = x2, which
is a parabola.
• The solid dot indicates that the point (1, 0) is included on the
graph.
• The open dot indicates that the point (1, 1) is excluded from
the graph.
 Absolute value
• The absolute value of a number a, |a|, is the distance
from a to 0 on the real number line. Distances are
always positive or 0, so we have |a| 0 for every
number a.

Example 1.5 
Evaluate
(a) |3| = 3 (b) |-3| = 3 (c) |0| = 0

(d) | 2  1 | (e)
2 1 | 3   |   3
 Example 1.6 
Sketch the graph of the absolute value function f ( x)  x .
 
 x, if x  0
x 
 x,if x  0
The line y = x to the right of the y-axis
The line y = -x to the left of the y-axis
 Example 1.7 
Find a formula for the function f graphed in the figure.
 Example 1.7 (Cont’) 
The line through (0, 0) and (1, 1) has slope m = 1
and y-intercept b = 0.

So, its equation is y = x.

– Thus, for the part of
the graph of f that
joins (0, 0) to (1, 1),
we have:

f ( x)  x if 0  x  1
 Example 1.7 (Cont’) 
The line through (1, 1) and (2, 0) has slope m = -1.

So, its point-slope form is y – 0 = (-1)(x - 2) or

y = 2 – x.
– So, we have:

f ( x)  2  x if 1  x  2
 Example 1.7 (Cont’) 
We also see that the graph of f coincides with the
x-axis for x > 2.

Putting this information together, we have the

following three-piece formula for f:

x if 0  x  1

f ( x)  2  x if 1  x  2
0 if x  2

 Symmetry

Odd and even functions are special types of

functions with special characteristics.
The trick to working with odd and even functions is to
remember to plug in (-x) in place of x and see what
happens.

Examine f (-x).

If there is no change = even. If there is a negation = odd.

 Symmetry
(1) Even function

• If f (-x) = f (x), x is in the domain of f (x).

• The geometric significance of an even function is that its graph is symmetric
with respect to the y-axis.

x, y    x, y 

 This means that, if we

have plotted the graph of f
for x ,we 0 obtain
the entire graph simply
by reflecting this portion
about the y-axis.

 
 Symmetry
(2) Odd function
• If f (-x) = -f (x), x is in the domain of f (x).
• The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the
origin (0,0).
x, y    x, y 
• If we already have the graph of f for x  0 ,
we can obtain the entire graph by rotating
this portion through 180° about the origin.
 Example 1.8
Determine if the following functions are odd or even.
(a) f (x) = x2
f (-x) = (-x)2 = x2 = f (x)

The function f (x) = x2 is even.

 Example 1.8(Cont’)
(b) f (x) = -x3
The function f (x) = x3 is odd because
f (-x) = (-x)3 = -x3 = -f (x).
 Example 1.8(Cont’)
(c) f (x) = x5+ x
f ( x )  ( x)5  (  x)
 ( 1)5 x5  ( x)
  x5  x
 ( x 5  x )
  f ( x)
Thus, f (x) is an odd function.
 Example 1.8(Cont’)
(d) g(x) = 1- x4
4 4 4 4
g ( x)  1  ( x)  1  (1) x  1  x  g ( x)
So, g(x) is even.
 Example 1.8(Cont’)
(e) h(x) = 2x - x2
h( x )  2( x)  (  x) 2  2 x  x 2

Since h(-x)  h(x) and h(-x)  -h(x), we conclude that h

is neither even nor odd.
Example (TRY)
 Increasing and decreasing functions
Definition:
• A function f is increasing
on an interval I if
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )for x1  in
x 2 I.
 When x increases, f (x) also increases.
 f (x) is moving up at the interval I
• A function f is decreasing on the interval I if
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )for x1 inx 2I.
 When x increases, f (x) decreases.
 f (x) is moving down at the interval I
 Increasing and decreasing functions (Cont’)
• This graph rises from A to B, falls from B to C, and rises again
from C to D.
• The function f is said to be increasing on the interval [a, b],
decreasing on [b, c], and increasing again on [c, d].
• Notice that, if x1 and x2 are any two numbers between a and b
with x1 < x2, then f(x1) < f(x2).
• We use this as the defining property of an increasing function.
 Example 1.9

y  x2

• You can see from the figure that the function f (x) =
x2 is decreasing on the interval (, 0] and increasing
on the interval [0, ) .
 Class Activity
The graphs of f and g are given.
(a) State the values of f(−4) and g(3).
(b) For what values of x is f(x) = g(x) ?
(c) Estimate the solution of the equation f(x) = −1.
(d) State the domain and range of f.
(e) State the domain and range of g.
 Section 1.2

Models and curve fitting

 Models and Curve Fitting
• Mathematical Model
• The types of Functions:
• Linear
• Polynomial
• Power and root
• Rational
• Algebraic
• Trigonometric
• Exponential and logarithmic
• Transcendental

FUNCTIONS & MODELS

 Mathematical Models
• A mathematical model is a mathematical description of a
real-world phenomenon, such as:
– the size of a population
– the demand for a product
– the speed of a falling object
– the concentrations of a product in a chemical reaction
• The purposes of the model are to…
– understand the phenomenon;
– make predictions about future behavior.

FUNCTIONS & MODELS

• Figure 1 illustrates the modeling process:
– First we formulate the model;
– Next we solve the model mathematically;
– Then we interpret the conclusions;
– Finally we test our predictions—
• and repeat the cycle as needed!

FUNCTIONS & MODELS

• R0, pronounced “R naught,” is a mathematical term that indicates how
contagious an infectious disease is. It’s also referred to as the reproduction
number. As an infection is transmitted to new people, it reproduces itself.
http://covid-19.moh.gov.my/kajian-dan-penyelidikan/apa-itu-nilai-r
 Remarks about Modeling
• All mathematical models are idealizations;
none is ever completely accurate.
• A good model…
– simplifies reality enough to permit mathematical
calculations, but…
– is accurate enough to provide valuable
conclusions.
• There are several types of functions used in
modeling, which we now discuss.

FUNCTIONS & MODELS

 (1) Linear model

• the graph of the function is a line.

• y = f(x) = mx + c where m is the slope of the
line and c is the y-intercept.
• Domain: (, )
• Range: (, )
 Example
T = -10h + 20
represents the rate of
change of temperature in
Celsius (T) with respect to
height in km (h).
At a height of h = 2.5 km, the
temperature is
T = – 10(2.5) + 20 = – 5°C .
 Example
For instance, the figure shows a graph of the
linear function f(x) = 3x - 2 and a table of
sample values.
– Notice that, whenever x increases by 0.1, the value of f(x)
increases by 0.3.
– So, f (x) increases three times as fast as x.
 Example (Cont’)
– Thus, the slope of the graph y = 3x - 2, namely
3, can be interpreted as the rate of change of y
with respect to x.
 (2) Polynomials

• P( x)  an x n  an 1 x n1  ...  a2 x 2  a1 x  a 0 where n is a

nonnegative integer and the numbers a0 , a1 , a 2 , ,a n
are constants called the coefficients of the
polynomial.

• The domain of any polynomial is   (, ) .

• If the leading coefficient a n  0 , then the degree

of the polynomial is n.
 (2) Polynomials(Cont’)
Example 1.10
P( x)  2 x 6  x 4  x 3  2 The degree of the P(x) = 6.

• A polynomial of degree 1 is of the form P(x) = mx + b which is linear

function.
• A polynomial of degree 2 is of the form P(x) = ax2 + bx + c which is
quadratic function.

• For polynomial of degree 2, its graph is always a parabola obtained by

shifting the parabola y = ax2. The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and
downward if a < 0.
 (2) Polynomials(Cont’)
• A polynomial of degree 3 is of the form P(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx +
d it is called a cubic function.

• The graph shows examples of degree 4 and degree 5

polynomials. The degree gives the maximum number of “ups
and downs” that the polynomial can have and also the
maximum number of crossings of the x axis that it can have.
 (3) Power function
• A function of the form f (x) = xa, where a is a constant, is
called a power function.
• Case 1: a = n, where n is a positive integer
• The graph of f (x) = xn, for n = 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are shown
as follows:

n =1 n=2 n=3 n=4 n=5

 (3) Power function (Cont’)
Note:
• From case 1, the general shape of the graph of f (x) = xn
depends on whether n is even or odd.
• If n is even, then f (x) = xn is an even function and its
graph is similar to the parabola y = x2.
• If n is odd, then f (x) = xn is an odd function and its graph
is similar to that of y = x3.
• As n increases, the graph of y = xn becomes flatter near 0
and steeper .
 (3) Power function (Cont’)
Example 1.11
Sketch y = x2, y = x4, y = x6 in one graph.

If n is even, then f (x) = xn is an even function, and its graph

is similar to the parabola y = x2.
 (3) Power function (Cont’)
Example 1.12
Sketch y = x3, y = x5 in one graph.

If n is odd, then f (x) = xn is an odd function, and its graph is

similar to that of y = x3.
 (3) Power function (Cont’)
Case 2: a =1/n, where n is a positive integer
1
• The function f ( x)  x  n x is a root function.
n

• For n = 2, f ( x)  x is the square root function.

 (3) Power function (Cont’)
Case 2: a =1/n, where n is a positive integer (Cont’)
• For n = 3, f ( x)  3 x .

Note:
• The graph of y  n
x for n is odd (n >3) is similar to that of y  3
x.

• The graph y  x for n is even (n >2) is similar to that of y 

n
x.
 (3) Power function (Cont’)
Case 3: a = -1
1
• The graph of the reciprocal function f ( x )  is shown
x
as follows:

• Note:
• Since x  0, thus y-axis (x = 0) is a vertical asymptote.
• Since y = 1/x, x = 1/y, thus y  0, thus y = 0 (x-axis) is
a horizontal asymptote.
 (4) Rational functions

(4) Rational functions

• A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials:
P( x)
f ( x) 
Q( x)

• where P and Q are polynomials.

• The domain consist of all values of x such that Q(x)  0.
 (4) Rational functions (Cont’)
(4) Rational functions (Cont’)
Example 1.13
Find the domain of the following polynomials:
(a) f (x) = 1/x
A simple example of a rational function is the function f (x)
= 1/x, whose domain is x | x  0.

2 x4  x2  1
(b) f ( x) 
x2  4
The function is a rational function with domain x | x  2.
 (5) Algebraic functions
(5) Algebraic functions
• A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be
constructed using algebraic operations (such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots) starting
with polynomials.
Note:
• Rational function is an algebraic function.
• But algebraic function is not necessary a rational function.
Example 1.14
x 4  16 x 2
f x   x2 1 g x    ( x  2) 3 x  1
x x
 (6) Trigonometric functions
(i) y = sin x, x  [0,2 ] , range [-1,1]

• Note:
• y = sin x = sin (x + 2) as the graph is periodic over a
period of 2 .
• sin (-x) = - sin x
 (6) Trigonometric functions (Cont’)

(i) y = cos x, x  [0,2 ] , range [-1,1]

• Note:
• y = cos x = cos (x + 2 ) as the graph is periodic over a
period of 2 .
• cos (-x) = cos x
 (6) Trigonometric functions (Cont’)
sin x n
(iii) y  tan x  , cos x  0 (means x  , n is nonzero
integer) cos x 2

Note:
tan x     tan x
 (7) Exponential functions
A function f of the form f (x) = ax, where a > 0.
• Example 1.15 x
1
(a) f (x) = 2x (b) f x     , 0 < a < 1
2

For both cases, the domain is (, ) and the range is (0, ) .
 (8) Logarithmic functions
• f ( x)  log a x ,where a > 0
Example 1.16
Sketch y  log 2 x, y  log 3 x, y  log 5 x, y  log10 x in one graph.
State the domain and range.
In each case, the domain is
(0,the
) range is (,,and
)
the function increases slowly
when x > 1.
 
 (9) Transcendental functions
• These are functions that are not algebraic.
• Example of the transcendental functions is
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential, and
logarithmic functions.

Example 1.17
y = sin-1 x, y = cosec x, y = ex, y = ln x
 
 (9) Transcendental functions (Cont’)
Classify the following functions as one of
the types of functions that we have
discussed.

a. f ( x)  5x

5
b. g ( x )  x
1 x
c. h( x) 
1 x
d. u (t )  1  t  5t 4
(9) Transcendental functions (Cont’)

f(x) = 5x is an exponential
function.
– The x is the exponent.

g(x) = x5 is a power function.

– The x is the base.
We could also consider it to be
a polynomial of degree 5.
 (9) Transcendental functions (Cont’)

1 x
h( x ) 
1 is an
x algebraic function.

u(t) = 1 – t + 5t4 is a polynomial

of degree 4.
 Section 1.3
Transformations, combinations,
composition and graphs of
functions
 (1) Transformation of functions
(a) Translation
• Moving the whole graph without changing its shape.
(i) Suppose c > 0, to obtain the graph of y = f (x) + c, shift the
graph of y = f (x) a distance c units upward (up to y-axis).

Example 1.18
Sketch y = x3+1
 (a) Translation (Cont’)
(ii) Suppose c > 0, to obtain the graph of y = f (x) - c, shift the
graph of y = f (x) a distance c units downward (down from y-
axis).
Example 1.19
 Sketch y  e x  1 .
 (a) Translation (Cont’)
(iii) Suppose c > 0, to obtain the graph of y = f (x - c),
shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units
to the right of x- axis.

Example 1.20
Sketch y = (x – 2)2
 (a) Translation (Cont’)
(iv) Suppose c > 0, to obtain the graph of y = f (x + c), shift the
graph of y = f (x) a distance c units to the left of x-axis.

Example 1.21
1
Sketch y  .
x2
 
 (b) Stretching
• Consists of stretching and compressing horizontally or
vertically.
(i) Suppose c > 1, the graph of y = c f (x) can be obtained by
stretching the graph y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c.
Example 1.22
Sketch y = 3x2.
 (b) Compressing (Cont’)
1
(ii)Suppose c > 1, the graph of y  f ( x) can be obtained by compressing the
c
graph y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c.
Example 1.23
1
Sketch y  sin x. compress by a factor of 0.5)
(vertical
2
 (b) Compressing (Cont’)
• Suppose c > 1, the graph of y = f (cx) can be obtained by
compressing the graph y = f (x) horizontally by a factor of c.
Example 1.24
Sketch y = sin (2x).
 (b) Stretching (Cont’)
 x
• Suppose c > 1, the graph of y  f   can be obtained by
c
stretching the graph y = f (x) horizontally by a factor of c.

Example 1.25
 x
Sketch y  cos .
2
 (c) Reflecting (Cont’)
• Suppose c > 1, the graph of y = f (-x) can be obtained by
reflecting the graph y = f (x) about the y-axis.
Example 1.26
Sketch y = ln (-x).

y =ln (-x)
y = ln x
 (c) Reflecting (Cont’)
• Suppose c > 1, the graph of y = -f(x) can be obtained by
reflecting the graph y = f(x) about the x-axis.

Example 1.27
Sketch y = -ln x.

y = ln x

y = -ln x
Example 1.28

Sketch the graph of the function

f ( x)  x 2  6 x  10  ( x  3) 2  3 2  10  ( x  3) 2  1
Example 1.29
Sketch the graph of the function f ( x)  1  sin x .
 Question (TRY)
Given the graph of y  x , use transformations
to graph:

a. y  x 2
b. y x2
c. y x
d. y2 x
e. y  x
 Question (TRY) ) (Cont’)
• In the other parts of the figure, we sketch:
– y x  2 by shifting 2 units downward.
– y  x  2 by shifting 2 units to the right.
– y   x by reflecting about the x-axis.
– y  2 x by stretching vertically by a factor of 2.
– y   x by reflecting about the y-axis.
 (2) Combinations of functions
• Let f and g be functions with domains A and B. Then the
functions f + g, f - g, fg, and are defined as follows:

 (f + g) (x) = f (x) + g(x), domain = A  B

 (f – g) (x) = f (x) – g(x), domain = A  B
 (fg) (x) = f (x)g(x), domain = A  B
f f x 
  x   , domain = {x  A  B | g ( x)  0}
  g g x 
 (2) Combinations of functions (Cont’)
Example 1.30
Given f ( x)  x and g ( x)  2  x , find the functions f + g, f – g, fg,
and f/g and their respective domains.

For example, the domain of f ( x)  x is A  [0, ) and the domain

of g ( x)  2  x is B  (, 2] . The interception of both domains of
A and B is [0, )  (,2]  [0,2] .
 

So, the domain of ( f  g ) x  x  2  x is A  B  [0, 2] .

the domain of ( f  g ) x  x  2  x is A  B  [0, 2] .
the domain of ( fg ) x  x 2  x  x(2  x) is A  B  [0, 2] .
isx  A  B | g ( x)  0. or [0,2).
f x x
the domain of  
  x  
g 2 x 2 x
 (3) Composition of functions
• Given two functions f and g, the composite function f
g (also called the composition of f and g) is defined
by (f  g) (x) = f (g(x)).

• Suppose that y = f (u) = and u = g(x) = x2 + 1. Then y

= f (u) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 + 1) = x 2  1.
 Example
• If f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x – 3 , find the
composite functions f ◦ g and g ◦ f .
• Solution By definition of composition,
(f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x – 3) = (x – 3)2
and
(g ◦ f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x2) = x2 – 3 .
• Note that in general f ◦ g ≠ g ◦ f !
 (3) Composition of functions (Cont’)
Example 1.31
Given f ( x)  x and g ( x)  2  x . Find f  g , g  f , f  f , and
g  and
g their respective domains.
( f  g )( x)  f ( g ( x))  f ( 2  x)  2x  4 2x

The domain, x | 2  x  0  x | x  2  (, 2]

( g  f )( x)  g ( f ( x))  g ( x )  2  x , x  0
• For 2 x to be defined, we must have, 2  x  0

• So, x  2 or x  4

• As a result, domain for g  f is 0  x  4 or is the closed

interval [0, 4].
 (3) Composition of functions (Cont’)
Example 1.31(Cont’)
( f  f )( x)  f ( f ( x))  f ( x )  x  4 x
The domain for f  f is [0, ) .
 
( g  g )( x)  g ( g ( x)  g ( 2  x )  2  2  x

Domain, 2  x  0 and 2  2  x  0
x  2 and 2  x  2
2 x  4
x  2
So the domain 2  x  2 is or the closed interval of
[-2,2].
 Section 1.4
Exponential functions
 Exponential functions
• In general, an exponential function is a function of the
form f (x) = ax, where a > 0 (a is a positive constant).

• If x = n, n is positive integer, then a n  a  a    a

0 n factors
- a 1
p
- a  (q a ) p
q

- an  1
n
  a
 Exponential functions (Cont’)

• If x is…
– a rational number, x = p/q , where p and q are
integers and q > 0 , then
 
q q p
x p/q p
a a  a  a
– an irrational number, say x  3  1.73206 ,
then we define ato3be the number approximated by

1.7 1.73 1.732 1.7320 1.73206

2 ,2 ,2 ,2 ,2 ,
 Three cases of exponential function
1) y = ax, a > 1, x  
Example 1.32
y = 2x, y = ex
It is an increasing function.
 
 Three cases of exponential function (Cont’)
2) y = ax, 0 < a < 1, x  
Example 1.33
x
1
y 
 2  It is a decreasing function.
Three cases of exponential function (Cont’)
3) y = ax, a =1, x   y=1
It is a constant function.

Note:
• Domain for y = ax is  ,   .
• Range for y = ax is 0,   for a 1.
Graphs of a x
 Laws of exponents
m n m n
(1) a  a a (6) n
ab  n a n b
mn am a n
a
(2) a  n (7)
a
n
b
 n
b
(3) a m n  a n   (8)
m
a mn  an
m
 n am
 
 a
n
(4) ab  a nb n (9) n
n n
n
a
a a
(5)    n
b b
 Section 1.5
Inverse functions and logarithms
 (1) Inverse functions
Definition: A function f is called a one-to-one function if it
never takes on the same value twice; that is, f (x1) f (x2)
whenever x1  x2.

The Horizontal Line Test

A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line
intersects its graph more than once.
 (1) Inverse functions (Cont’)
Example 1.34

 
 
 
 
 
So, f (x) is not a one-to-one function as f (x1) = f (x2) and x  x .
1 2
 (1) Inverse functions (Cont’)
Example 1.35
Is the function f (x) = x3 one-to-one?

• Yes, because horizontal line intersects the graph of f (x) =

x3 only once.
• So, by the Horizontal Line Test, f is one-to-one.
 (1) Inverse functions (Cont’)
Example 1.36
If the function f (x) = x2 one-to-one?
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
• There are horizontal lines that intersect the graph of g
more than once, e.g:f (1) = 1 = f(–1) ,
• So, by the Horizontal Line Test, f is not one-to-one.
 (1) Inverse functions (Cont’)
Definition
Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B.
Then its inverse function f -1 has domain B and range A
and is defined by
f -1(y) = x f (x)
 = y for any y in B.
 

 1 1 
 f ( x)  
 f ( x) 
 (1) Inverse functions (Cont’)
 
Example 1.37
If f (1) = 5, f (3) = 7, and f (8) = -10, find f -1(7), f -1(5), and f-
1
(-10).

• From the definition of f -1, we have:

f -1(7) = 3 because f (3) = 7

f -1(5) = 1 because f (1) = 5
f -1(-10) = 8 because f (8) = -10
 (1) Inverse functions (Cont’)
• Properties of inverse function
• f -1(f (x)) = x for every x in the domain of f.
• f (f -1(x)) = x for every x in the domain of f -1.
Example 1.38
Given f (x) = x3, f -1(x) = 3 x, obtain f -1(f (x)) and f (f -1(x)).
 
f -1(f (x)) = (x3)1/3 = x
f (f -1(x)) = (x1/3)3 = x
 (1) Inverse functions (Cont’)

How to find the inverse function of a one-to-one

function f
Step 1 Write y = f (x).

Step 2 Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if

possible)

Step 3 To express f -1 as a function of x, interchange x

and y. Then y = f -1(x).
 (1) Inverse functions (Cont’)

• By definition of f – 1 , a point (a, b) is on the

graph of f if and only if the point (b, a) is on
the graph of f – 1 .

• Since we get the point (b, a) from the point

(a, b) by reflecting about the line y = x , we
find that
 (1) Inverse functions (Cont’)
Example 1.39
Given f (x) = x3+2. It is one-to-one function. Find
f -1(x).

1)First, write y = x3 + 2.
2)Then, we solve this equation for x : x  3 y  2
3)Finally, we interchange x and y : y  3
x2
So, the inverse function is:
  y  f 1
 x   3
x2
 

 
(1) Inverse functions (Cont’)

Graph of f –1
:

y  f 1  x   3 x  2
 (2) Logarithmic functions
• If a > 0 and a  1, the exponential function f (x) = ax is either
increasing or decreasing and so it is one-to-one.
• Therefore it has an inverse function f -1, which is called the
logarithmic function with base a and is denoted by log a.
• y = log a x  a y = x, for a > 0, x > 0

Properties of y = logax
log a a x  x x
(1) , for
a log a x  x
(2) , for x > 0
log a 1  0. a0  1
(3)
log a a  1. a1  a
(4)
 (2) Logarithmic functions (Con’t)

Graph for y = logax:

Note: y = logax is the inverse function for y = ax. So the

graph of y = logax is the reflection of the graph of y = ax
about the line y = x.
 (2) Logarithmic functions (Con’t)
Laws of Logarithms
(1) log a bc  log a b  log a c
b
(2) log a  log a b  log a c
c
(3) log a b c  c log a b
log c b
(4) log a b  (Change of base
log c a formula)
1
(5) log a b 
log b a
• The logarithm with base 10 is denoted as lg x  log10 x.
• The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm
and is denoted as ln x  log e x.
• We may then define function such as y = ln x, log 2 x, etc.
 (2) Logarithmic functions (Con’t)
Example 1.40
Use the properties of Logarithms to evaluate the following.
(a) log42 + log432
log 4 2  log 4 32  log 4  2  32 
 log 4 64
3

(b) log280 – log25

 80 
log 2 80  log 2 5  log 2  
5
 log 2 16
4
 (2) Logarithmic functions (Con’t)
Example 1.40 (Cont’)
(c) Calculate log 5 89 .(Change of Base)
log 89 1.94939
log 5 89    2.7889
log 5 0.69897
ln 89 4.4886
log 5 89    2.7889
ln 5 1.6094

(d) Find the log 2 32.

log 2 32
 log 2 2 5
 5 log 2 2
5
 (2) Logarithmic functions (Con’t)
Example 1.40 (Cont’)
 10 x 
(e) Express log10  2  in terms of log10 x and log10 y.
 y 

 10 x 
log10  2 
 y 
 log10 10 x  log10 y 2
1
 log10 10 x   2 log10 y
2
1 1
 log10 10  log10 x  2 log10 y
2 2
1 1
  log10 x  2 log10 y
2 2
 (2) Logarithmic functions (Con’t)
Example 1.40 (Cont’)
(e) Express ln 20  ln 18  2 ln 6 as a single logarithm.

ln 20  ln 18  2 ln 6
 ln 20  ln 18  ln 6 2
 20 
 ln  36 
 18 
 ln 40
 (3) Natural logarithm

y = logex = ln x, for x > 0

Properties
(1) ln x = y  ey = x
(2) ln(ex) = x, for x
(3) eln x = x, for x > 0
(4) ln e = 1
x ln a 
x
x ln a
(5) a  e  e for any base a > 0.
 (3) Natural logarithm (Cont’)
Example 1.41
Find the solution to the equation e5-3x = 10.
ln(e53 x )  ln10
5  3 x  ln10
3 x  5  ln10
1
x  (5  ln10)
3
As the natural logarithm is found on scientific
calculators, we can approximate the solution to four
decimal places: x ≈ 0.8991.
ln x
 For any positive number a (a1), we have log a x  ln a .
 Section 1.6
Parametric curves
 Parametric curves

Definition: A point (x, y) along the graph y = f

(x) can be described in a parameter t, which is
called parametric equations, i.e. x = f (t), y = g(t).

• We can then interpret (x, y) = (f(t), g(t)) as the

position of the particle at time t.
 Parametric curves(Cont’)
Example 1.42
Sketch and identify the curve defined by parametric equations below:
x = t2 – 2t
y = t +1, t  

• This gives: x = t2 – 2t
= (y – 1)2 – 2(y – 1)
= y2 – 4y + 3
• So, the curve represented by the given parametric equations is the
parabola x = y2 – 4y + 3.
 Parametric curves(Cont’)

Example 1.42 (Cont’)

• Placed restrictions on the parameter t in the
preceding example.
• For instance, the restriction 0 ≤ t ≤ 4 would
lead to just that portion of the parabola that
starts at the point (0, 1) and ends at the point
(8, 5) .
• This is shown on the next slide:
 Parametric curves(Cont’)
Example 1.42 (Cont’)

t  0≤t≤4
 Parametric curves(Cont’)
Example 1.43
Sketch the curve x = sin t, y = sin2t
•So, y = (sin t)2 = x2
•Thus, the point (x, y) moves on the parabola y = x2
•As -1 ≤ sin t ≤ 1, we have -1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
• So, the parametric equations represent only the part of the parabola
for which -1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
• When t  0, x  0, y  0
t   / 2, x  1, y  1
3
t , x  1, y  1
2
t  2 , x  0, y  0
 Parametric curves(Cont’)

Example 1.44
Sketch the curve x = cos t, y = sin t, and 0  t  2 .
•x2 + y2 = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1
•Thus, the point (x, y) moves on the unit circle x2 + y2 = 1

•When t  0, x  1, y  0
t   / 2, x  0, y  1
t   , x  1, y  0
3
t , x  0, y  1
2
t  2 , x  1, y  0
Thank you