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DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH
 Research is derived from the French word reachercher which
means to seek again.
 Research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis solutions, collecting, organizing, and
evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions
and carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether
they fit the formulating hypothesis.
 The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the
purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge,
whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in
practice of an art.

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 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new

insights into it.
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group.
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs.
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.

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 IMPORTANCE/ SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and
planning problems of business and industry.
 Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our
economic system.
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social
relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.
 To those students who are to write Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure.
 To professionals in research methodology, research may mean the source
of livelihood.
 To analyst, research may mean the generalization of new theories.
 To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet of new ideas
and insights.

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
It includes surveys and fact findings enquiries of different kinds. The main
characteristics of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables, he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
 ANALYTICAL RESEARCH
In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the
material.
 APPLIED RESEARCH
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society, an industry/ business organization.
 FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH
Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalization and with
the formulation of a theory.

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 Cont…..
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon i.e., relating to quality or
kind. Examples: Motivational Research, Attitudinal Research.
 CONCEPTUAL RESEARCH
It relates to some abstract ideas or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones.
 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
It relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory.

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 RESEARCH METHODS VS. METHODOLOGY
Research methods means all those techniques that are used for conduction
of research. In other words, all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed
as research methods.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research
problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is
done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally
adopted by researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the
research techniques but also the methodology.
When we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research
methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the
context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular
method or technique and why we are not using others.

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 RESEARCH PROBLEM
A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and
wants to obtain a solution for the same.
Components of Research Problem
 There must be an individual or group which has some difficulty or problem.
 There must be some objective to be attained.
 There must be alternative course of action for attaining objectives.
 There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to
the selection of alternatives.
 There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains.

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 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHERS IN INDIA
 The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research in our country.
 There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side and
business establishments, government departments, and research institutions on the other side.
 There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new
acts / rules, reports and other government publications in time.
 Most of business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied by
them to researchers will not be misused.
 Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information.
 There does not exists a code of conduct for researchers and inter department rivalries are also
quite common.
 Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of time and
energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc. rather than in
tracing out relevant material from them.
 Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance.

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 PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE SELECTING THE RESEARCH
PROBLEM
 Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a
difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
 Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average
researcher.
 Too narrow or too deep problems should be avoided.
 The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the
related research material or sources are with in one’s reach.
 The following things also can be considered while selecting the problem:
 Time Factor
 Qualification of researcher
 Training
 Cost Involved.

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 RESEARCH PROCESS
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry
out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
The following steps of research process are as follows:
1. Formulating the Research Problem.
2. Extensive Literature Survey.
3. Development of Working Hypothesis.
4. Preparing the Research Design.
5. Determining Sample Design.
6. Collecting the Data.
7. Execution of the project.
8. Analysis of Data.
9. Hypothesis – Testing.
10. Generalization & Interpretation.
11. Preparation of the Report.

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 STEPS INVOLVED IN RESEARCH PROCESS
 Formulating the Research Problem.
Discuss with the experts, with one’s own colleagues, seniors to formulate the
research problem.
 Extensive Literature Survey.
The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully
studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
It is compulsory for a researcher to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the
RDC or Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher should
undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem.
 Development of Working Hypothesis.
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the
working hypothesis. It is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test
its logical or empirical consequences. It also indicates the type of data required
and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.

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 STEPS INVOLVED IN RESEARCH PROCESS
 Preparing the Research Design.
The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information. It includes:
1. Exploratory Research Design
2. Descriptive Research Design
3. Experimental/ Causal Research Design
 Determining Sample Design.
1. Probability Sampling: Simple Random Sampling, Stratified Random Sampling,
Systematic Sampling, Cluster Sampling, Area Sampling, Multi Stage Sampling
2. Non Probability Sampling: Judgment Sampling, Convenience Sampling, Quota
Sampling
 Collecting the Data.
1. Primary Data: Observation Method, Interview Method, Questionnaire Method
2. Secondary Data: Internal Secondary Data, External Secondary Data

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 STEPS INVOLVED IN RESEARCH PROCESS
 Execution of the project.
The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and
in time. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep
the survey as much realistic as possible.
 Analysis of Data.
The unwieldy data should necessarily be considered into a few manageable groups
and tables for further analysis.
• Coding
• Editing
• Tabulation
 Hypothesis Testing.
After analysis the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, he had
formulated earlier.
Chi-Square test, T- test, Z- test, F-test, ANOVA etc.

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 STEPS INVOLVED IN RESEARCH PROCESS
 Generalizations and Interpretation.
 If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalization i.e. to build a theory.
 Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after
an analytical and or experimental study. Researcher can better appreciate only
through interpretation what are his findings, why they are and can make others to
under- stand the real significance of his research findings.
 Preparation of the Report or the Thesis.
Finally the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him.
The layout of the report includes:
1. Preliminary Pages
2. Main Text
3. End Matter

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 RESEARCH DESIGN
The design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing
the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.
Features of a good research design
1. The design which gives smallest experimental error.
2. The design which yields maximum information.
3. The design which minimize bias.
4. The design which maximizes the reliability of the data collected.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Exploratory Research Design
2. Conclusive / Descriptive / Diagnostic Research Design
3. Hypothesis- testing research studies/ Experimental studies

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 Exploratory Research Design
The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. The main
purpose of such studies is that of developing the working hypothesis from an operational
point of view.
a) Literature Research
It is the most economical way to find possible hypothesis from the available literature.
Hypothesis stated by earlier researcher may be reviewed and their usefulness be
evaluated as a basis for further research. In this way the researcher should review and
build upon the work already done by others, but in cases where hypothesis have not yet
been formulated his task is to review the available material for deriving the relevant
hypothesis from it.
b) Experience Survey
Experience survey means the survey of people who have practical experience with the
problem to be studied. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the
systematic questioning of informants.

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 Exploratory Research Design
c) Case study
The case study method is a technique by which individual factor or a group is analyzed in its
relationship to any other in a group.
Features of Case Study
1. Increase of knowledge.
2. Development of Hypothesis.
3. Flexibility.
4. Preventive Measure.
Steps in the case study Approach
a) Determining present status.
b) Gathering information.
c) Testing suggested hypothesis.
d) Instituting Remedial action.
Advantages
1. Increase the experience of the researcher and also its ability and skills.
2. It suggest measures for improvement of the present environment of social units.
3. Helps in constructing the appropriate questionnaire or schedule.
4. Helps in formulating relevant hypothesis along with the data for testing them.

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 Conclusive / Descriptive / Diagnostic
Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned
with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or of a
group whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency
with which something occurs or its association with something else.
a) Longitudinal Studies
Longitudinal studies are based on panel data and panel methods. It
is a sample of respondents who are interviewed from time to time.
b) Cross-sectional Studies
(i) Field Studies
(ii) Survey Research

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 Hypothesis- Testing Research Studies/ Experimental studies
Experimental studies are those where the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationships between variables. The
study of experimental designs has its origin in agricultural research.
Important experimental designs
1. Informal experimental designs.
2. Formal experimental designs.
1. Informal Experimental Designs.
a) Before and after without control design.
Test area: Level of phenomenon Treatment Level of phenomenon
Before treatment (x) introduced after treatment (y)
 

Treatment effect = (y) - (x)

 
 

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 Informal Designs
b) After only with control design
Test area: Treatment introduced Level of phenomenon after Treatment (y)

Control area: Level of phenomenon without treatment (z)

Treatment effect=(y) – (z)
c) Before –and –after with control design
Test area: Level of phenomenon Treatment Level of phenomenon
Before treatment (x) introduced after treatment (y)

Control area: Level of phenomenon Level of phenomenon

without treatment without treatment
(A) (z)
Treatment effect= ( y-x)- (z-a)

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 Formal Experimental Designs
a) Completely Randomized Design
It is the simplest possible design and its procedure of analysis is also easier. The
essentials characteristics of the design is that subjects are randomly assigned to
experimental treatments.
Example- One way ANOVA
Experimental Group- Treatment A

Population- Randomly Selected- Sample-Randomly Assigned Independent Variable

 
Control Group- Treatment B

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 Formal Experimental Designs
B) Randomized Block Design
It is an improvement over the C.R. design. In the randomized block design, subjects
are first divided into groups known as blocks such that within each group the
subjects are relatively homogeneous in respect to some selected variable.
Example- Two way ANOVA
Per Acre Production Data (In Tonnes)
Varieties of A B C
Seeds
(Varieties of 10 5 5
Fertilizers) W
X 7 5 4

Y 6 3 4

Z 8 7 3

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 Formal Experimental Designs
c) Latin Square Design
It is an experimental design very frequently used in agricultural research. The
conditions under which agricultural investigations are carried out are different
from those in other studies for nature plays an important role in agriculture.
FERTILITY LEVEL

1 2 3 4 5
X1 A B C D E
SEEDS DIFFERENCES
X2 B C D E A
X3 C D E A B
X4 D E A B C
X5 E A B C D

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 Formal Experimental Designs
D) Factorial Design
Factorial designs are used in experiments where the effects of varying more than one
factor are to be determined. They are specially important in several economic and
social phenomena where usually a large number of factors affect a particular problem.
a) Simple Factorial Design
In case of it, we consider the effects of varying two factors on the dependent variable.
b) Complex Factorial Design
When an experiment is done with more than two factors we use complex factorial
design.

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 SAMPLING DESIGN
A complete enumeration of all items in the population is known as a census inquiry.
Sampling Design refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for
the sample.
When field studies are undertaken in practical life, selection of only items of population are considered.
Steps in Sample Design
1. Type of universe.
2. Sampling unit.
3. Source list.
4. Size of sample.
5. Parameters of interest.
6. Budgetary constraints.
7. Sampling procedure.

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 SAMPLING SIZE
When a survey is undertaken it is not possible to cover the entire population.
The sample size should be neither too large nor too small.
Factors affecting sample size
1. Cost of the sample.
2. The no. of groups and subgroups within the sample that will be analyzed.
3. Accuracy required of the result.
4. The precision is also considered.
5. The respondent’s attitude may also influence the sample size.

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 SAMPLING ERRORS
Sampling Errors
The difference between the sampling value and the corresponding population value is known as sampling error.
Non sampling errors
Non sampling errors are those errors which occur in different stages of research except in the selection of
sampling.
Types of Non Sampling Errors
1. Defective problem definition: Eg. For a research to be conducted, a researcher must know about the period,
geographical area to be covered etc.
2. Defective population definition: Selection of an inappropriate population causes this error.
3. Non Response error: Respondent refuse to cooperate with the interviewer by not answering his questions.
4. Poor Questionnaire design:
5. Interviewer bias.
6. Data analysis error: Eg. Mistakes in summation, division.
7. Interpretation error: In the testing of hypothesis, a researcher commits a mistake known as interpretation error.

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 METHODS OF SAMPLING

Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Multi-stage Sampling
Non Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Judgment Sampling
Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling

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 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Simple Random Sampling
In it each unit of the population has equal chance of being included in the sample.
2. Stratified Random Sampling
The universe to be sampled is divided into groups that are mutually exclusive and include all items in the
universe.
3. Cluster Sampling
If the total area happens to be big one, a convenient way in which a sample can be taken is to divide the
area into a number of smaller non overlapping areas and then randomly select a no. of these smaller
areas.
4.Systematic Sampling
Sample Size= No. of universe items/ desired sample size
5. Multi-stage Sampling
Two stage sampling.

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 NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Convenience Sampling
On the basis of convenience of researcher.
2. Judgment Sampling
On the basis of experts opinion.
3. Quota Sampling
Under quota sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different strata
with some restrictions on how they have to be filled.
4. Snowball Sampling
In the initial stage of snowball sampling, sample units may or may not be selected by using
probability methods. Subsequently, additional units are obtained on the basis of information given
by initial sample units. Again, these units may provide other names to the researcher. In this way the
sample builds up as more and more names are covered by it.

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 COLLECTION OF DATA

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been
defined and research design plan chalked out.
1. Primary Data
The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first
time, and thus happen to be original in character.
2. Secondary Data
The secondary data are those which have already been collected by
someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical
process.

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 METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA

1. Observation Method
The information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation
without asking from the respondents.
Advantages
• Subjective bias is eliminated.
• Currently happening information
Limitations
• Expensive Method
• Information provided by this method is limited.

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 METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA
2. Interview Method
a) Personal Interview
This method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a face to face contact to the
other person or persons.
Advantages:
• Detailed Information
• Flexibility
• Personal Information
Disadvantages:
• Expensive Method
• Possibility of biasness
• More time consuming
b) Telephonic Interview
This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself.
Advantages:
• Flexible
• Quick way of obtaining information
• Cheaper than personal interview method.
• No field staff is required.
Disadvantages:
• Little time is given to respondents for considered answers.
• Refusal
• Not suitable for intensive surveys.
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 METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA
3. Questionnaire Method
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite
order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who
are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the
space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to
answer the questions on their own.
Advantages:
• Low Cost
• Free from the bias of the interviewer.
• Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
• Results are reliable.
Disadvantages:
• It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
• It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
• This method is likely to be slowest of all.

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 METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA

Main Aspects of questionnaire Method

1. General Form
• Structured Questionnaire.
• Unstructured Questionnaire.
2. Question Sequence
In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies
received a researcher should pay attention to the question sequence in preparing
the questionnaire.
3. Question Formulation and wordings
• Should be very clear.
• Not give biased picture.
• Simple

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 MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

All statistical techniques which simultaneously analyze more than two

variables on a sample of observations can be categorized as multivariate
techniques.
Multivariate techniques have emerged as a powerful tool to analyze data
represented in terms of many variables. The main reason being that a
series of univariate analysis carried out separately for each variable may, at
times, lead to incorrect interpretation of the result. This is so because
univariate analysis does not consider the correlation or interdependence
among the variables.
Applications of multivariate techniques in practice have been accelerated
in modern times because of the advent of high speed electronic
computers.

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CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATIONS OF MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Multivariate techniques are largely empirical and deal with the reality; they
possess the ability to analyze complex data. Multivariate techniques also help in
in various types of decision making.
The basic objective underlying multivariate techniques is to represent a collection
of massive data in a simplified way. This technique transform a mass of
observations into a smaller number of composite scores in such a way that they
may reflect as much information as possible contained in the raw data obtained
concerning a research study.
The main contribution of these techniques is in arranging a large amount of
complex information involved in the real data into a simplified visible form.

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 IMPORTANT MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

 Multiple Regression
 Multivariate Analysis of Variance
 Canonical Correlation Analysis
 Factor Analysis

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 FACTOR ANALYSIS
A factor
It is an underlying dimension that account for several observed variables. There
can be one or more factors, depending upon the nature of the study and the
number of variables involved in it.
Factor loadings
Factor loadings are those values which explain how closely the variables are
related to each one of the factors discovered. They are also known as factor
variable correlations.
Communality
It shows how much of each variable is accounted for by the underlying factor
taken together. A high value of communality means that not much of the variable
is left over after whatever the factors represent is taken into consideration.

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 REPORT WRITING
Report writing is the last step in the research study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from
those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research.
Steps in Writing Report
1. Logical Analysis of the Subject Matter
It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subject. There are two ways in
which to develop a subject (a) Logically (b) Chronologically
2. Preparation of Final Outline
Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed.
3. Preparation of Rough Draft
This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of
utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his
research study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study
along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings
and generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.
4. Rewriting and Polishing of the Rough Draft
This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than
the writing of the rough draft. The researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he
has been consistent or not.
5. Preparation of the final bibliography
Oxford Style referencing, Harvard Style referencing, APA style referencing etc.
6. Writing the final draft
The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague
expressions. 41
 LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
The layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain. A
comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise: (A) Preliminary Pages (B) The
Main Text (C) The End Matter.
1. Preliminary Pages
 Title
 Acknowledgements

 Preface

 Table of Contents

 List of tables and illustrations

2. Main Text
 Introduction (Introduction, Objectives of the study, Review of Literature, Research Methodology,
Statistical Analysis)
 Statement of Findings and Recommendations

 Results

 Implications of the Results

 Summary

3. End Matter
 Questionnaire

 Sample Information

 Bibliography

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 MECHANICS OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
The following points deserve mention so far as the mechanics writing a report are
concerned:
1. Size and Physical Design: There should be one inch margins, top and bottom. A margin of at
least one and half inch should be allowed at left side and of at least half inch margin at the
right hand side.
2. Procedure: Should be adopted
3. Layout: Decided and accordingly adopted
4. The footnotes: refers to the references
5. Use of statistics, Charts and Graphs
6. The final draft
7. Bibliography
8. Preparation of the index

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 PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING A RESEARCH REPORTS
The following points deserve mention so far as the precautions for writing a report are
concerned:
1. Research report should be long enough to cover the subject but short enough to maintain
interest.
2. The layout of the research report should be well thought out and must be appropriate and
in accordance with the objective of the research problem.
3. The report should be free from grammatical mistakes.
4. The report should be present the logical analysis of the subject matter.
5. Appendices should be listed in respect of all technical data in the report.
6. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and such must be prepared
and appended at the end.
7. Index is also considered an essential part of a good report.
8. Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether typed or printed.
9. Charts, Graphs, and Statistical tables should be used.
10. Objectives of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods employed, and the
analysis techniques adopted must all be clearly stated.

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 ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
1. INTRODUCTION AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
4. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
5. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
6. HYPOTHESIS
7. THE DESIGN-METHODS AND PROCEDURES (RESEARCH METHODOLOGY)
 RESEARCH DESIGN
 SAMPLING DESIGN
 COLLECTION OF DATA
 STATISTICAL TECHNIQUE USED
8. REFERENCES

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