Illustrating Axiomatic

Structures of a
Mathematical System
An axiomatic system is a logical system which possesses an
explicitly stated set of axioms from which theorems can be
derived. It consists of some undefined terms (also called
the primitive terms), defined terms, list of axioms or
postulates concerning the undefined terms, a system of
logic (or proofs) to be used in deducing new statements
called theorems.
The roots at the base of the
tree correspond to the
undefined and defined
terms of the system. These
are the basic term from
which statements in the
axiomatic system are made.
Like the tip roots combined
to build up roots of the
tree,
undefined terms are the starting point for every definition and statement of the
system. They are combined in various ways into a statement called the
definition.
The trunk of the
tree corresponds
to the axioms or
postulates while
the branches
growing out of
that trunk are the
theorems. Axioms
are the
statements that
serve as a starting
point
for the system. Axioms are the basic truths and we used them to prove other
statements. Theorems, on the other hand, are statements deduced from the
Axiomatic system has three properties.
1. CONSISTENCY
An axiomatic system is said to be consistent if there are no axiom or theorem
that contradict each other. This means that it is impossible to derive both a
statement and its negation from the axiom set of system.
Example:
Axiom statement: There exist two lines that are parallel.
Negation: No two lines are parallel.

Notice that the negation is not an axiom nor a theorem.

The system where a statement and its negation are both true is said to be
inconsistent.
An axiomatic system should be consistent for it to
be logically valid. This means that there are no
axiom or theorems that contradict each other.
Otherwise, the axiomatic system is faulty or
inaccurate.
2. INDEPENDENCE
In an axiomatic system, an axiom or postulate is said to be independent if it is
not a theorem that follows the other axioms. It is not a theorem that can be
derived or cannot be proven true using other axioms in the system.
Independence is not a necessary requirement for an axiomatic system.

3. COMPLETENESS
An axiomatic system is complete if for every statement, either itself or its
negation, is derivable in that system. In other words, every statement is
capable of being proven true or false.
Example:

Axiom 1. Every robot has at least two paths.

Axiom 2. Every path has at least two robots.
Axiom 3. There exists at least one robot.
a. What are the undefined terms in this axiom set?
Answer:
robot and path are elements
robot path has is a relation
has This indicates that there is some relationship between robot
and path.
 Example:
Axiom 1. Every robot has at least two paths.
Axiom 2. Every path has at least two robots.
Axiom 3. There exists at least one robot.
b. If you are asked to prove say, “Theorem 1. There exists at least one path.”, how would you do
it?
Proof:
1. By the third axiom, there is an existence of a robot.
2. By the first axiom, each robot must have at least two paths.
3. Therefore, there exist at least one path.
Notice that Axiom 3 is a consequence of Axiom 1 and Axiom 2.
 Example:
Axiom 1. Every robot has at least two paths.
Axiom 2. Every path has at least two robots.
Axiom 3. There exists at least one robot.
c. What is the minimum number of paths? Prove it.

Answer:
Notice that Axiom 1 states that every robot has at least two paths. Hence, the
minimum number of paths is two.
Proof:
1. By the third axiom, a robot exists, call it 𝑹𝟏.
2. By the first axiom, 𝑹𝟏 must have at least two paths call them 𝑷𝟏 and 𝑷𝟐.
3. Therefore, at least two paths exist.

The example clearly shows that an axiomatic system is a collection of axioms, or statement about
undefined terms, from which proofs and theorems or logical arguments are built.
UNDEFINED
TERMS
UNDEFINED TERMS

Axiomatic structure started with three undefined terms

(or primitive terms): point, line, and plane. These
terms are the bases in defining new terms, hence they
are called the building blocks of geometry.
 Point Line Plane
Something having specific position A one-dimensional figure with A flat surface where infinite numbers
but it has no dimension (no infinite numbers of points, no of lines can lie. It has no specific
length, no width, and no specific length, without width nor length and width and without
thickness) or direction. thickness. It is always straight that thickness. It extends indefinitely in all
extends indefinitely in two opposite directions.
directions.

A point can be represented with a The line below is line AB, denoted by The parallelogram below is a plane
dot and is denoted by a capital letter. the symbol 𝐴𝐵 , which is named after denoted by the Greek Letter 𝛼, read
The two points below are point A and the two points that are on the line. as ‘alpha’. This plane can also be
point B. Lines can also be denoted by a lower named as plane ABC.
case letter like line 𝑙 below.
DEFINED
TERMS
1. Definition of a Segment
̅̅ ̅ ̅̅̅
̅ ̅̅ ̅̅̅
̅ ̅
Segment 𝐴𝐵, denoted by 𝐴𝐵̅ or 𝐵𝐴̅,̅ is the union of points A,
̅
B and all the points between them. 𝐴 and 𝐵 are called the
endpoints of the segments.
2. Definition of Between

Point 𝑈 is said to be between 𝐹 and 𝑁 if and only if 𝐹, 𝑈, and

𝑁 are distinct points of the same line and 𝐹𝑈 + 𝑈𝑁 = 𝐹𝑁.

In 𝐹𝑁 , 𝑼 is between 𝑭 and 𝑵 since

𝐹, 𝑈, and 𝑁 are distinct points on
the same line and 𝐹𝑈 + 𝑈𝑁 =
𝐹𝑁 and 2𝑐𝑚 + 3𝑐𝑚 = 5𝑐𝑚.
 3. Definition of Collinear Points and Coplanar Points

When points are on the same line, they are called collinear
points.

Note that points A, B, and C are on the same line, hence they are said to be
collinear, while point D is not on the same line with the other three, thus, these
four points A, B, C, and D are noncollinear.
3. Definition of Collinear Points and Coplanar Points

When points are on the same plane, they are called coplanar
points.

Notice that points B, I, and G are on the same plane P,

hence they are said to be coplanar.
4. Definition of a Ray

Ray is a part of a line that has one endpoint and goes on

infinitely in one direction.

Ray PQ starts from point P and goes on to the right without bound.
P is called the endpoint of 𝑃𝑄 .
 5. Definition of an Angle

An angle is the union of two noncollinear rays with a

common endpoint.

The common endpoint being shared by 𝑈𝑇 and 𝑈𝑉 is point U called the vertex.
The angle formed could be named as ∠1 or ∠𝑇𝑈𝑉 or ∠𝑉𝑈𝑇.
6. Definition of Congruent Angles

Two angles are congruent if and only if their measures are

equal.
In symbol:
∠𝑋 ≅ ∠𝑌, if and only if 𝑚∠𝑋 = 𝑚∠𝑌.
7. Definitions of Acute Angle, Right Angle, and Obtuse Angle

An acute angle is an angle with a measure greater than 0° but

less than 90°.
A right angle is an angle with a measure of 90° .
An obtuse angle is an angle with a measure greater than 90°
but less than 180°.
8. Definition of Adjacent Angles

Adjacent angles share a common vertex and a common side,

but do not overlap.
∠ABD and ∠CBD are adjacent angles which have a common vertex B
and a common side 𝐵𝐷 . The interiors of ∠ABD and ∠CBD do not
intersect and therefore, the two angles have no interior points in
common.

∠EFG and ∠GFH have F as common vertex, and 𝐹𝐺 as common side,

but the interiors of the two angles intersect, this means that the two
angles have common interior points. Thus, ∠EFG and ∠GFH are not
adjacent angles.
9. Definition of Supplementary Angles

Two angles are supplementary when the sum of their angles

is 180°.
10. Definition of Linear Pairs

A linear pair of angles is formed when two lines intersect. Two

angles are said to be linear if they are adjacent angles formed
by two intersecting lines and are supplementary.

𝐵𝐷 is the common side, 𝐵𝐴 and 𝐵𝐶 are opposite rays, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 forms a
linear pair.
 11. Definition of Vertical Angles

Opposite angles formed by two intersecting lines are vertical

angles.

∠1 and ∠3 are vertical angles. ∠2 and ∠4 are also vertical angles. Noticed that
these angles are opposite each other.
12. Definition of Perpendicular Lines

Perpendicular lines are two lines that intersect to form a right

angle.

𝐴𝐵 intersects 𝐶𝐷 at point E. ∠𝐴𝐸𝐷, ∠𝐴𝐸𝐶, ∠𝐵𝐸𝐶, and ∠𝐵𝐸𝐷 are right angles
form by these two intersecting lines, hence, 𝐴𝐵 is perpendicular
to 𝐶𝐷 . In symbol, 𝐴𝐵 ⊥ 𝐶𝐷 .
13. Definition of Perpendicular Bisector

A perpendicular bisector 𝑃𝑅 of a line segment 𝑋𝑍 is a line segment perpendicular to 𝑋𝑍 and

passing through the midpoint.

̅ ̅̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅̅̅ ̅̅ ̅
̅ ̅̅ ̅̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅̅
𝑃𝑅̅̅̅ ⊥ 𝑋𝑍̅̅̅ at point̅̅̅̅ 𝑌. 𝑃𝑅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ divides 𝑋𝑍̅̅̅ into two equal parts. Thus, 𝑋𝑌 = 𝑍𝑌.
̅̅ ̅
Furthermore, 𝑋𝑌̅̅ ≅ 𝑍𝑌̅.̅̅
14. Definition of Polygon

A polygon is a closed figure such that the union of three or

more coplanar segments, which intersect at endpoints, with
each endpoint shared by exactly two noncollinear segments.
15. Definition of Convex Polygon

A polygon is convex if and only if the lines containing the sides

of the polygon do not contain points in its interior.

If each diagonal, except its endpoints, is entirely in the interior of

the polygon, then the polygon is convex, like polygon EFGH.
16. Definition of Nonconvex (Concave) Polygon

A polygon is nonconvex (concave) if and only if at least one

of its sides is contained in a line, which contains also points in
the interior of the polygon.

̅̅ ̅
̅ ̅̅
𝐿𝑀 which contains 𝐿𝑀̅̅̅ also contains points in the interior of the
polygon, hence, polygon JKLM
17. Definition of Regular Polygon

A regular polygon is a polygon that is both equilateral and

equiangular.
The regular polygon DREAM has five interior
angles
∠𝑅𝐷𝑀, ∠𝐸𝑅𝐷, ∠𝐴𝐸𝑅, ∠𝐸𝐴𝑀, ∠𝐴𝑀𝐷. These angles
are equal,

𝑚∠𝑅𝐷𝑀 = 𝑚∠𝐸𝑅𝐷 = 𝑚∠𝐴𝐸𝑅 = 𝑚∠𝐸𝐴𝑀 = 𝑚∠𝐴𝑀𝐷.

The polygon DREAM has five equal sides, 𝐷𝑅 = 𝑅𝐸 =
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐴𝑀 = 𝑀𝐷. Point O is the center of the given
polygon. ∠𝑂 is the central angle.
17. Definition of Regular Polygon

A regular polygon is a polygon that is both equilateral and equiangular.

Regular polygon DREAM has also

five exterior angles. These angles
are obtained when one of the
intersecting sides is extended such
as ∠𝐴𝑀𝑁. The outside angle
along with the vertex is an exterior
angle.
18. Definition of a Triangle

A triangle is a three-sided polygon.

The symbol “∆” followed by the three letters representing the noncollinear
̅̅̅
points (or the vertices)̅̅̅ ̅̅̅ is used
̅̅̅ to name the triangle. Every triangle, like ∆𝑇𝑅𝐼
has three sides (𝑇𝑅̅,̅̅ 𝑅𝐼 ̅̅,̅ 𝑇𝐼 ), ̅̅̅ three angles (∠𝑇, ∠𝑅,∠𝐼), and
three vertices (T, R, I)
19. Definition of Angle Bisector of a Triangle

An angle bisector of a triangle is a segment contained in the ray,

which bisects the angle of the triangle, and whose endpoints are
the vertex of this angle and a point on the opposite side.

̅̅̅
̅ ̅̅
𝑂𝐸̅̅̅ is an angle bisector of ∆𝐿𝑂𝑉. It is the bisector of ∠𝐿𝑂𝑉. The endpoint O of the
angle bisector is the vertex of ∆𝐿𝑂𝑉 and the other endpoint E is on the opposite
side. Thus, ∠𝐿𝑂𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐸𝑂𝑉.
20. Definition of an Altitude of a Triangle

A segment is an altitude of a triangle if and only if it is

perpendicular from a vertex of the triangle to the line that
contains the opposite side.

̅̅̅ has three altitudes.

Every triangle ̅̅ ̅
In ∆𝑆𝑇𝐴, 𝑇𝑌̅̅ is one of the three altitudes.
20. Definition of an Altitude of a Triangle

A segment is an altitude of a triangle if and only if it is

perpendicular from a vertex of the triangle to the line that
contains the opposite side.

̅ ̅̅
̅̅ ̅
In ∆𝑆𝐴𝐹, 𝑆𝐸̅̅̅ is one of the three altitudes.
20. Definition of an Altitude of a Triangle

A segment is an altitude of a triangle if and only if it is perpendicular from a vertex of the

triangle to the line that contains the opposite side.

̅̅̅ ̅ ̅̅
̅̅̅ ̅̅
In ∆𝐿𝑆𝐸, 𝐿𝐼 , 𝑆𝑁̅,̅̅ and 𝑇𝐸̅̅̅ are the three altitudes.
21. Definition of Median

A segment is a median of a triangle if and only if its endpoints

are a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite side.

Every triangle has also three medians. Median,

except its endpoints, is always in the triangle’s
interior. Unlike altitude that can be drawn
from the ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅
̅̅̅ ̅̅̅
exterior of the triangle. 𝐴𝑂̅̅ is the median to 𝑁𝑅,̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅ 𝑅𝐿̅ ̅̅ is
̅̅ ̅̅̅
the ̅̅̅̅median to 𝑁𝐴,̅̅̅ ̅̅̅ and
̅̅̅ ̅ ̅ ̅̅̅
𝑁𝑀̅ is the median to 𝑅𝐴̅.
22. Definitions of Acute, Right, Obtuse, and Equiangular
Triangle

An acute triangle is a triangle in which all angles are acute.

A right triangle is a triangle in which one of the angles is a right angle.
An obtuse triangle is a triangle in which one of the angles is obtuse.
An equiangular triangle is a triangle in which all angles are
congruent.
23. Definitions of Scalene, Isosceles, and Equilateral Triangle

A scalene triangle is a triangle with no congruent sides.

An isosceles triangle is a triangle with at least two congruent
sides.
An equilateral triangle is a triangle with all sides congruent.
Axioms
Common Notions (Axioms)

Axiom 1. Things which are equal to the same thing are also
equal to one another. This is transitive property of equality.
Common Notions (Axioms)
Axiom 2. If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
This is addition property of equality.
Common Notions (Axioms)

Axiom 3. If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are

equal. This is subtraction property of equality.
Common Notions (Axioms)
Axiom 4. Things which coincide with one another are
equal to one another. This is reflexive property.

Any segments, angles and polygons are always equal to themselves.

Common Notions (Axioms)

Axiom 5. The whole is greater than the part.

Symmetric Property of Equality

For all real numbers 𝑝 and 𝑞, if 𝑝 = 𝑞. then 𝑞 = 𝑝.

Substitution Property of Equality

For all real numbers 𝑝 and 𝑞, if 𝑝 = 𝑞, then 𝑞 can be substituted for 𝑝 in

any expression.
Geometrical Postulates
Postulate 1. A straight line segment can be drawn joining any two
distinct points.
Geometrical Postulates
Postulate 2. Any straight line segment can be extended indefinitely in a
straight line.
Geometrical Postulates
Postulate 3. Given any straight line segment, a circle can be drawn
having the segment as radius and one endpoint as center.
Geometrical Postulates
Postulate 4. All right angles are congruent.
Geometrical Postulates
Postulate 5. If a straight line meets two other lines, so as to make the two
interior angles on one side of it together less than two right angles, the other
straight lines will meet if produced on that side which the angles are less than
two right angles.
 Geometrical Postulates
Postulate 5 asserts that two distinct straight lines in a plane are either parallel or
meet exactly in one point.

Postulate 5 is referred to as the parallel line postulate.

The following are other postulates about point, line, plane, and figures:

If two distinct planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.

The following are other postulates about point, line, plane, and figures:

If two points of a line are in a plane, then the line containing these
points is in the plane.
Segment Addition Postulate
If points 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅 are collinear and point 𝑄 is between points 𝑃 and
𝑅, then 𝑃𝑄 + 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑃𝑅
Angle Measurement Postulate
To every angle there corresponds a unique real number 𝑟 where
0 < 𝑟 < 180°.

In geometry, angles are measures in units called degrees. In symbol °.

Angle FUN is 45 degrees. In notation, 𝑚∠𝐹𝑈𝑁 = 45°
Angle Addition Postulate
Theorems

Theorems are the new statements which are

deduced or proved using sets of axioms, system of
logic, and previous theorems. These are statements
accepted after proven deductively.
Theorems Descriptions Illustrative Example
Theorem 1 If two different lines intersect,
then they intersect at exactly
one point.
Theorem 2 If a line not contained in a
plane intersects the plane,
then the intersection contains
only one point.

Theorem 3 If a point lies outside a line,

then exactly one plane
contains both the line and the
point.
 Theorems Descriptions Illustrative Example
Theorem 4 If two distinct (different) lines
intersect, then exactly one
plane contains both lines.
Linear Pair If two angles form a linear
Theorem pair, then they are
supplementary.

Vertical Vertical angles are congruent.

Angles
Theorem
 Theorems Descriptions Illustrative Example
Perpendicula Point on the perpendicular
r Bisector bisector of a segment is
Theorem equidistant from the
endpoints of the segment.

Isosceles Base angles of isosceles

Triangle triangles are
Theorem congruent.
 Theorems Descriptions Illustrative Example
Exterior The exterior angle of a triangle is
Angle equal to the sum of the two
remote interior angles of the
Theorem triangle. The exterior angle of a
triangle is greater than either of
the measures of the remote
interior angles.

Triangle The sum of the measures of

Angle Sum the angles of a triangle is
Theorem 180°.
References: Grade 8 Math Learners Material and CO_Q3_Mathematics 8_ Module 2