• SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF

CHEMISTRY

• UNIT : 1
•
NATURE OF MATTER
MATTER: Anything which has mass and
occupies space is called matter.
CLASSIFICATION OF
MATTE
MATTER
R

PHYSIC CHEMIC
AL AL
 MATTER

PHYSICAL CHEMICAL

Solid Liquid Gas Mixtures Pure

Substances
 Organic Inorganic
compounds compounds
ELEMENT: An element is defined as a pure
substance that consists of only one type of
particles. These particles may be atoms or
molecules.
Ex: Hydrogen, oxygen,nitrogen, copper, sodium
etc

Elements are classified as:

1. Metals
2. Non-metals
3. Metalloids.
Atom: The smallest particle of an
element which may or may have an
independent existence.
Ex: Na, Ag, H, O

Molecules: The smallest particle of an

element or a compound which has an
independent existence.

Molecules are of two types

(i)Homoatomic: Ex: H2, O2
(ii) Heteroatomic : Ex: H2O, NH3
Compounds: are pure substances
containing more than one kind of elements
or atoms. When two or more atoms of
different elements combine ina fixed ratio
by mass, the molecule of a compound is
obtained.
MIXTURES
Mixtures: A material containing two or
more substances in anu ratio is called
a mixture.
Mixtures can be classified as:
1. Homogeneous Mixture: having
uniform composition throughout.
2. Heterogeneous Mixture: having not
uniform composition throughout.
 Differences between mixtures and
compounds
MIXTURES COMPOUNDS
The constitunents of a mixture The constitunents of a compound
may be present in any ratio. are always present in a fixed
ratio by mass.
The properties of a mixture are The properties of a compound
midway between those of its are different from those of its
constituents constituent elements
The constituents of a mixture can The constituents of a compound
be separated into simpler can be separated into simpler
substances by physical methods substances by chemical methods
only.
May or may not be homogeneous Always homogeneous
 PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Properties can be classified into two
categories –
1. physical properties
2. chemical properties
Physical properties : are those properties
which can be measured or observed
without
changing the identity or the composition of
the substance.
Ex: colour, odour, melting point, boiling
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: The properties
which require a chemical change to occur.
Ex: acidity or basicity, combustibility etc.
NOTE: Many properties of matter such as
length, area, volume, etc., are quantitative
in nature.
Any quantitative observation or
measurement is represented by a number
followed by units
in which it is measured.
Ex: Length of a room can be represented as
The International System of Units
(SI)
Established by the 11th General Conference on
Weights and Measures.
The SI system has seven base units.
DERIVED UNITS: those which are
derived from the basic physical
quantities.
Ex: Area- m 2 , Velocity- ms -1
UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT

Every experimental measurement has some

amount of uncertainty associated with it.
Every experimental measurement has some
amount of uncertainty associated with it.
one would always like the results to be
precise and accurate.
•PRECISION : refers to the closeness of
various measurements for the same
quantity.
•ACCURACY : is the agreement of a
particular value to the true value of the
result.
For Ex: true value for a result is 2.00 g
 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The uncertainty in the experimental or the
calculated values is indicated by mentioning
the number of significant figures.
•SIGNIFICANT FIGURES : are
meaningful digits which are known with
certainty.
The uncertainty is indicated by writing
the certain digits and the last uncertain
digit.
Thus, if we write a result as 11.2 mL, we say
rules for determining the number of significant
figures.
(1) All non-zero digits are significant.
For example in 285 cm, there are three significant figures and in 0.25 mL, there are two
significant figures.
(2) Zeros preceding to first non-zero digit are not significant. Such zero indicates the position
of decimal point.
Thus, 0.03 has one significant figure and 0.0052 has two significant figures.
(3) Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. Thus, 2.005 has four significant
figures.
(4) Zeros at the end or right of a number are significant provided they are on the right side of
the decimal point.
For example, 0.200 g has three significant figures. But, if otherwise, the zeros are not
significant. For example, 100 has only one significant figure.
(5) Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures. For example, in 2 balls or
20 eggs, there are infinite significant figures as these are exact numbers and can be
represented by writing infinite number of zeros after placing a decimal i.e.,
2 = 2.000000 or 20 = 20.000000
 Scientific Notation
Scientific Notation: exponential notation in which any number can be represented in the form
N × 10n where n is an exponent having positive or negative values and N can vary between 1
to 10.
a chemist has to deal with numbers as large as 602, 200,000,000,000,000,000,000 for the
molecules of 2 g of hydrogen gas or as small as 0.00000000000000000000000166 g
mass of a H atom.
232.508 as 2.32508 ×102 in scientific notation.
0.00016 can be written as 1.6 × 10–4.
 Dimensional Analysis
there is a need to convert units from one system to other. The method used to accomplish
this is called factor label method or unit factor method or dimensional analysis.
 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS
Law of Conservation of Mass: It states that matter can
neither
be created nor destroyed.
This law was put forth by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789.

Law of Definite Proportions: This law was given by, a

French chemist, Joseph Proust. He stated that a given
compound always contains exactly the same proportion
of elements by weight. It is sometimes also referred to as
Law of definite composition.

% of copper % of oxygen % of carbon

Natural 51.35 9.74 38.91

Sample
Synthetic 51.35 9.74 38.91
Sample
Law of Multiple Proportions This law was proposed by Dalton in 1803.
According to this law, if two elements can combine to form more than one
compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other
element, are in the ratio of small whole numbers.

Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water

2g 16g 18g
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Hydrogen Peroxide
2g 32g 34g
Here, the masses of oxygen (i.e. 16 g and 32 g) which combine with a fixed mass of
hydrogen (2g) bear a simple ratio, i.e. 16:32 or 1: 2.
Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes: This law was given by Gay Lussac in 1808. He
observed that when gases combine or are produced in a chemical reaction they do so in a
simple ratio by volume provided all gases are at same temperature and pressure.
the law of definite proportions by volume

Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water

100 mL 50 mL 100 mL
Thus, the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen which combine together (i.e. 100 mL and 50 mL)
bear a simple ratio of 2:1.
Avogadro Law In 1811, Avogadro proposed that equal volumes of gases at the same
temperature and pressure should contain equal number of molecules.
 Avogadro’s Number
Avogadro’s Number (symbol N) is the number of atoms in
12.01 grams of carbon.
Its numerical value is 6.02 × 1023.
Therefore, a 12.01 g sample of carbon contains 6.02 × 10 23
carbon atoms.
 How Big Is a Mole?
The volume occupied by one mole of softballs would be about
the size of the Earth.
One mole of Olympic shot put balls has about the same mass
as the Earth.
 Mole Calculations
We will be using the Unit Analysis Method again.
Recall:
First we write down the unit asked for
Second we write down the given value
Third we apply unit factor(s) to convert the given units to the
desired units
 Mole Calculations I
How many sodium atoms are in 0.120 mol Na?
Step 1: we want atoms of Na
Step 2: we have 0.120 mol Na
Step 3: 1 mole Na = 6.02 × 1023 atoms Na

6.02 × 1023 atoms Na

0.120 mol Na × = 7.22 × 1022 atoms Na
1 mol Na
 Molar Mass
The atomic mass of any substance expressed in grams is the
molar mass (MM) of that substance.
The atomic mass of iron is 55.85 amu.
Therefore, the molar mass of iron is 55.85 g/mol.

Since oxygen occurs naturally as a diatomic, O2, the molar

mass of oxygen gas is 2 times 16.00 g or 32.00 g/mol.
 Calculating Molar Mass
The molar mass of a substance is the sum of the molar masses
of each element.
What is the molar mass of magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO ) ?
3 2

The sum of the atomic masses is:

24.31 + 2(14.01 + 16.00 + 16.00 + 16.00) =
24.31 + 2(62.01) = 148.33 amu
The molar mass for Mg(NO ) is 148.33 g/mol.
3 2
 Mole Calculations II
Now we will use the molar mass of a compound to convert
between grams of a substance and moles or particles of a
substance.
6.02 × 1023 particles = 1 mol = molar mass
If we want to convert particles to mass, we must first convert
particles to moles and than we can convert moles to mass.
 Molar Mass of a Gas
We can also use molar volume to calculate the molar mass of
an unknown gas.
1.96 g of an unknown gas occupies 1.00L at STP. What is the
molar mass?
We want g/mol, we have g/L.

1.96 g 22.4 L
× = 43.9 g/mol
1.00 L 1 mole
 Mole Unit Factors
We now have three interpretations for the mole:

1 mol = 6.02 × 1023 particles

1 mol = molar mass

1 mol = 22.4 L at STP for a gas

This gives us 3 unit factors to use to convert between moles,
particles, mass, and volume.
 Mole-Volume Calculation
A sample of methane, CH , occupies 4.50 L at STP. How
4
many moles of methane are present?
We want moles, we have volume.
Use molar volume of a gas: 1 mol = 22.4 L

1 mol CH4
4.50 L CH4 × = 0.201 mol CH4
22.4 L CH4
 Mass-Volume Calculation
What is the mass of 3.36 L of ozone gas, O , at STP?
3

We want mass O , we have 3.36 L O .

3 3

Convert volume to moles then moles to mass:

1 mol O3 48.00 g O3
3.36 L O3 × ×
22.4 L O3 1 mol O3

= 7.20 g O3
 Molecule-Volume Calculation
How many molecules of hydrogen gas, H , occupy 0.500 L at
2
STP?
We want molecules H , we have 0.500 L H .
2 2

Convert volume to moles and then moles to molecules:

1 mol H2 6.02×1023 molecules H2

0.500 L H2 × ×
22.4 L H2 1 mole H2

= 1.34 × 1022 molecules H2

Law of Definite Composition
The law of definite composition states that “Compounds
always contain the same elements in a constant proportion by
mass”.
Sodium chloride is always 39.3% sodium and 60.7% chlorine
by mass, no matter what its source.
Water is always 11.2% hydrogen and 88.8% oxygen by mass.
 Law of Definite Composition

A drop of water, a glass of water, and a lake of water all contain

hydrogen and oxygen in the same percent by mass.
 Chemical Formulas
A particle composed of two or more nonmetal atoms is a
molecule.

• A chemical formula expresses

the number and types of atoms
in a molecule.
• The chemical formula of
sulfuric acid is H2SO4.
 Writing Chemical Formulas
The number of each type of atom in a molecule is indicated
with a subscript in a chemical formula.
If there is only one atom of a certain type, no ‘1’ us used.
A molecule of the vitamin niacin has 6 carbon atoms, 6
hydrogen atoms, 2 nitrogen atoms, and 1 oxygen atom.
What is the chemical formula?

C6H6N2O
 Interpreting Chemical Formulas
Some chemical formulas use parenthesis to clarify atomic
composition.
Antifreeze has chemical formula C2H4(OH)2. There are 2
carbon atoms, 4 hydrogen atoms, and 2 OH units, giving a
total of 6 hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen atoms.
Antifreeze has a total of 10 atoms.
 Percent Composition
The percent composition of a compound lists the mass percent
of each element.
For example, the percent composition of water, H O is:
2
11% hydrogen and 89% oxygen
All water contains 11% hydrogen and 89% oxygen by mass.
 Calculating Percent Composition
There are a few steps to calculating the percent composition of
a compound. Lets practice using H2O.
Assume you have 1 mole of the compound.
One mole of H2O contains 2 mol of hydrogen
and 1 mol of oxygen.
2(1.01 g H) + 1(16.00 g O) = molar mass H 2O
2.02 g H + 16.00 g O = 18.02 g H2O
 Calculating Percent Composition
Next, find the percent composition of water by comparing the
masses of hydrogen and oxygen in water to the molar mass of
water:

2.02 g H
× 100% = 11.2% H
18.02 g H2O

16.00 g O
× 100% = 88.79% O
18.02 g H2O
 Percent Composition Problem
TNT (trinitrotoluene) is a white crystalline substance that
explodes at 240°C. Calculate the percent composition of TNT,
C7H5(NO2)3.
7(12.01 g C) + 5(1.01 g H) + 3 (14.01 g N + 32.00 g O)
= g C7H5(NO2)3

84.07 g C + 5.05 g H + 42.03 g N + 96.00 g O = 227.15 g

C7H5(NO2)3.
Percent Composition of TNT
84.07 g C
× 100% = 37.01% C
227.15 g TNT
1.01 g H
× 100% = 2.22% H
227.15 g TNT
42.03 g N
× 100% = 18.50% N
227.15 g TNT
96.00 g O
× 100% = 42.26% O
227.15 g TNT
 Empirical Formulas
The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole
number ratio of ions in a formula unit or atoms of each
element in a molecule.
The molecular formula of benzene is C6H6

The empirical formula of benzene is CH.

The molecular formula of octane is C8H18

The empirical formula of octane is C 4H9.

 Calculating Empirical Formulas
We can calculate the empirical formula of a compound from
its composition data.
We can determine the mole ratio of each element from the
mass to determine the formula of radium oxide, Ra?O?.
A 1.640 g sample of radium metal was heated to produce
1.755 g of radium oxide. What is the empirical formula?
We have 1.640 g Ra and 1.755-1.640 = 0.115 g O.
 Calculating Empirical Formulas
The molar mass of radium is 226.03 g/mol and the molar mass
of oxygen is 16.00 g/mol.

1 mol Ra
1.640 g Ra × = 0.00726 mol Ra
226.03 g Ra
1 mol O
0.115 g O × = 0.00719 mol O
16.00 g O
• We get Ra0.00726O0.00719. Simplify the mole ratio by
dividing by the smallest number.
• We get Ra1.01O1.00 = RaO is the empirical formula.
 Empirical Formulas from
Percent Composition
We can also use percent composition data to calculate
empirical formulas.
Assume that you have 100 grams of sample.

Benzene is 92.2% carbon and 7.83% hydrogen, what is the

empirical formula.
If we assume 100 grams of sample, we have 92.2 g carbon
and 7.83 g hydrogen.
 Empirical Formulas from
Percent Composition
Calculate the moles of each element:

1 mol C
92.2 g C × = 7.68 mol C
12.01 g C
1 mol H
7.83 g H × = 7.75 mol H
1.01 g H
• The ratio of elements in benzene is C7.68H7.75.
Divide by the smallest number to get the formula.
7.68 7.75
C 7.68 H 7.68 = C1.00H1.01 = CH
 Molecular Formulas
The empirical formula for benzene is CH. This represents the
ratio of C to H atoms of benzene.
The actual molecular formula is some multiple of the
empirical formula, (CH)n.
Benzene has a molar mass of 78 g/mol. Find n to find the
molecular formula.

(CH)n 78 g/mol n = 6 and the molecular

=
CH 13 g/mol formula is C6H6.
 Conclusions
Avogadro’s number is 6.02 × 1023 and is one mole of any
substance.
The molar mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic
masses of each element in the formula.
At STP, 1 mole of any gas occupies 22.4 L.
 Conclusions Continued
We can use the following flow chart for mole calculations:
 Conclusions Continued
The percent composition of a substance is the mass percent of
each element in that substance.
The empirical formula of a substance is the simplest whole
number ratio of the elements in the formula.
The molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula.