Presented by

Ms.Shumaila Waheed

COMPONENTS OF IMMUNE
SYSTEMS
COMPONENTS OF IMMUNE SYSTEMS

Immune system is composed of

1. Cells
2. Organs

3. Molecules
CELLS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
  White blood cells or leucocytes serve as sentinels and
defenders against infection.
 They move around the body via the lymphatic and blood
circulatory systems.
 Leucocytes are classified by morphology- number of
nuclei lobes and presence or absence of cytoplasmic
granules.
 Leukocytes may be found as individual cells throughout
the body, as accumulations within lymphoid organs (e.g.,
spleen, lymph nodes).
FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS
  All blood borne cells originate in the bone marrow.
 Pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell in the bone marrow give
rise to two major lineages;
a myeloid lineage
a lymphoid lineage.
 Cells of the myeloid lineage differentiate further into platelets,
erythrocytes, eosinophils, basophils (and mast cells),
neutrophils, Monocytes/macrophages, and some dendritic cells.
 Cells of the lymphoid lineage differentiate further into T and B
lymphocytes and NK cells
TYPES OF LEUCOCYTES
 White blood cells that have multi lobed nuclei
and contain conspicuous cytoplasmic granules
are known as granulocytes .
 Others with a single, un lobed nucleus and
cytoplasm that contains few or no granules are
known as a granular leukocytes.
 Agranular leukocytes derive from lymphoid or
myeloid lineage precursors. 
CELLS OF THE INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM 

 Myeloid Cells:
First line of defense against invading organisms in
non-specific innate immunity.
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils/Mast cells
Monocytes/Macrophages/Dendritic Cells
A) NEUTROPHILS
 Comprises approximately 60% of the peripheral blood
leukocytes, neutrophils are the most numerous leukocyte
population.
 Neutrophils have multi lobed nuclei (2-5) and cytoplasmic
granules.
 The neutrophils main role is in inflammation. – First to arrive
at inflammation site – Leave blood/endothelium into tissues.
 Neutrophils are attracted into the tissue by chemotactic
factors stimulated by tissue damage – complement proteins,
clotting proteins and T cell derived.
A) NEUTROPHILS
 In the tissues, neutrophils are active phagocytes. They destroy
ingested microorganisms via oxygen-dependent or independent
pathways.
a. Produce myeloperoxidases to assist oxidated antimicrobial effects.
b. Produce lactoferrin and lysozyme as direct antimicrobial agents.
c. to mediate vascular functions.
d. Deficiencies in pathways increase susceptibility to infections.
 Neutophil have receptor for IgG on their surface so IgG is the only
immunoglobulin that opsonizes.
 
B) EOSINOPHILS
 Eosinophils have bilobed nuclei and cytoplasmic granules.
 Constitute 1-3% of circulating leucocytes.
  In contrast to the phagocytosis and intracellular digestion
normally displayed by neutrophils, eosinophils secrete
their granule contents for extracellular digestion of
infectious pathogens which are too large to be engulfed.
 Eosinophils also produce cytokines, prostaglandins and
leucotrienes, and enzymes which can inhibit the
inflammatory products of mast cells.
B) EOSINOPHILS
 The granular contents of eosinophils contain toxin known
as “major basic protein: and eosinophils cationic protein.
 Parasites like helminthes easily ingested by eosinophils
due to toxic major basic protein.
 Eosinophils have Fc receptors for IgG and IgE antibodies
enabling them to bind to opsonized targets.
 They then secrete their antibiotic granule contents
(including major basic protein and eosinophils cationic
protein) and reactive oxygen species to bring about
damage to the target.
C) BASOPHILS
 Basophils have bilobed nuclei and cytoplasmic granules.
 Found in low numbers in the blood (<1%). Act like mast cells.

 They are non-phagocytic

 They constitute less than 1% of white blood cells.

 Basophils are of hematopoietic origin. Typically mature in the bone marrow and then

circulate in the peripheral blood, from where they can then be recruited into the tissues.
 Mediators stored preformed in the cytoplasmic granules of basophils include

chondroitin sulphates
proteases
histamine.
Chondroitin sulphates probably contribute to the storage of histamine and neutral
proteases, basophils are the source of most of the histamine found in normal human
blood.
C) BASOPHILS
 Basophils have a short life-span of several days.
 Involved in allergic reactions (Type I hypersensitivity
responses).
 Have high affinity Fc receptors for IgE on their surface.
 When an individual is exposed to an allergen, specific IgE is
produced. This IgE binds to the surface of basophils.
 Upon re-exposure to the allergen, the allergen binds to IgE
on the surface of basophils resulting in degranulation.
 Cross-linking of the IgE causes the basophils to release
pharmacologically active mediators
D) MAST CELLS
 A mast cell (also known as a mastocyte or a labrocyte) is a
resident granulocyte of several types of tissues that contains many
granules rich in histamine and heparin.
 The mast cell is very similar in both appearance and function to
the basophil. However, they are not the same, as they arise from
different cell lines.
 Two types of mast cells are recognized,

A. connective tissue mast cell

B. mucosal mast cells.
Contain granules with preformed mediators to be released after
stimulation – histamine, prostaglandins
D) MAST CELLS
 Mast cells are present in most tissues characteristically surrounding blood
vessels and nerves, and are especially prominent near the boundaries
between the outside world and the internal milieu, such as the skin, mucosa
of the lungs, and digestive tract, as well as the mouth, conjunctiva, and nose.
 Mast cells and basophils may have particularly important roles as effector
cells in initiating and or amplifying IgE-dependent inflammatory reactions
 Stimulation of mast cells occurs by the anaphylatoxins (complement proteins
C3a and C5a) or by cross-linking of surface immunoglobulin (IgE).

 Both cells play an important protective role as well, being intimately

involved in wound healing and defense against pathogens .
MONOCYTES/MACROPHAGES

 Monocytes, which constitute 5–10% of mononuclear leucocytes

in the blood, differentiate into macrophages when they migrate
into tissues.
 Monocytes are larger than most lymphocytes and have a kidney-
shaped nucleus: they possess azurophilic lysosomal granules
containing lysozyme, acid hydrolases and myeloperoxidase.
 The blood monocytes arise from myeloid progenitors in the bone
marrow.
 Monocytes/Macrophages are antigen processing and presenting
cells.
MACROPHAGES
 When monocytes enter the tissues and become macrophages: – Enlarge and
increase production of intracellular lysozymes – Greater phagocytosis. – Can
live for years in tissue; highly motile.
 Activation of these cells occurs by phagocytosis of antigens, or in response to
T cell derived cytokines.
 They are key effector cells in certain forms of cell-mediated immunity, the
reaction that serves to eliminate intracellular microbes. In this type of
response, T cells activate macrophages and enhance their ability to kill
ingested microbes . Macrophages that have phagocytosed microbes and
protein antigens process the antigens and present peptide fragments to T cells.
 Thus, macrophages function as APCs in T-cell activation. The important
functions of macrophage are in the induction and effector phases of adaptive
immune responses.
DENDRITIC CELLS
 Specialized phagocytic cells found in most tissues.
 Arise both from the myeloid and lymphoid lineages.
 Abundant at interfaces between the external and
internal environments (skin, lining of the
gastrointestinal tract), where they encounter invading
pathogens.
 Actively motile; continuously sample surroundings by
endocytic processes.
 Dendritic cells are very efficient at activation of T cells.
DENDRITIC CELLS
  Dendritic cells are antigen-presenting cells
(APCs) which play a critical role in the regulation
of the adaptive immune response.
 Dendritic cells are so called because, when they
are mature, their cytoplasm extends into transient
spiny dendrites and sheet-like veils.
 This provides a large surface area for their main
function of antigen presentation to T lymphocytes. 
DENDRITIC CELLS
 All dendritic cells are derived from bone marrow stem cells, but
appear to be heterogeneous, with various precursors (including
monocytes) differentiating into dendritic cells when stimulated
by appropriate combinations of cytokines.
 Immature dendritic cells are found in tissues throughout the
body and are very efficient at capturing and processing antigens.
 Mature DCs are defined by key morphological features and by
the presence or absence of various molecules on the cell surface.
 The key morphological characteristic of DCs is the presence of
numerous membrane processes that extend out from the main
cell body (similar to dendrites on neurons)
DENDRITIC CELLS
 In additional morphological feature of DCs is
that they contain abundant intracellular structures
relating to antigen processing including
endosomes, lysosomes, and Birbeck granules of
Langerhans cells of the epidermis.
 Recently, subsets of DC were recognized based
on their function in immune responses.

DENDRITIC CELLS
 The function of DCs falls broadly into three categories, each
of which involve antigen presentation.
1. The first category of DCs function is antigen presentation
and activation of T cells.
2. The second category of DC function is not as well
established, but it has been suggested that a different class of
DCs exist with the function of inducing and maintaining
immune tolerance.
3. The third category of DCs, known as follicular DCs, appear
to work to maintain immune memory in tandem with B cells.
2. LYMPHOCYTES
 Combination of two words
Lympha----------water
Cytes-------------cell (container)
 Main cells of immune system

 Specific components of adaptive immunity.

 They constitutes 20 % of white cell population in the circulation.

 Only cells of immune system exhibit specific receptor for antigen .

 Bridge between various parts of immune system.

 Small, round 5-12 m diameter spherical densely compact nucleus occupies almost entire
cell & scanty cytoplasm
 They are sub divide in to three subpopulations

 B Lymphocytes
 T Lymphocytes

 Natural killer cells

DEVELOPMENT OF LYMPHOCYTES
FUNCTIONS OF LYMPHOCYTES
 T LYMPHOCYTES
 About 70% of human blood lymphocytes are T
cells.
 Those cells destined to be T cell which leave the
bone marrow via the blood stream and move to
the thymus.
 There the T cell become able to differentiate
between self and nonself antigens.
 FUNCTIONS OF T LYMPHOCYTES
 The main functions of T lymphocytes are to exert e ffects on other
cells, either regulating the activity of cells of the immune system or
killing cells that are infected or malignant.
 T cells have surface antigen receptors, but there is no secreted form
of these equivalent to antibodies.
 Furthermore, T cells cannot recognize antigens in their native forms,
but only when they are presented on the surface of antigen-presenting
cells (APCs).
 The antigen receptors of most T cells (ab T cells) are composed of two
polypeptides called a and b chains, and they interact with peptides
derived from the degradation (processing) of foreign antigenic
proteins
 TYPES OF T LYMPHOCYTES
 The T lymphocytes are associated with two types of immunological functions.
EFFECTOR T LYMPHOCYTES
 The effector functions include activities such as killing of virally infected cells
and tumors.
 The regulatory function are represented by their ability to amplify or suppress
through cytokines or other effector lymphocytes including B and T cells.
 T cells receptor has two parts TCR and CD3.
CD3 is present on all T cells .
Presently two types of TCR are defined:TCR-1 & TCR-2 . Both receptors are
associated with a complex of a polypeptides making up the CD3 complex.
 Thus a T cell is defined either by TCR-1 or TCR2 which is associated with
CD3.
 Approximately 95% of blood T cells express TCR- 2.
 TCR-2 bearing cells can be further divided into CD4+ T cells and CD8+ cells .
 HELPER T CELLS
 Helper T cells are the major driving force and the main regulators of the
immune defense.
 Their primary task is to activate B cells and killer T cells. However, the
helper T cells themselves must be activated.
 This happens when a macrophage or dendritic cell, which has eaten an
invader, travels to the nearest lymph node to present information about the
captured pathogen.
 The phagocyte displays an antigen fragment from the invader on its own
surface, a process called antigen presentation.
 When the receptor of a helper T cell recognizes the antigen, the T cell is
activated.
 Once activated, helper T cells start to divide and to produce proteins that
activate B and T cells as well as other immune cells. 
 T-INDUCER CELLS
 Some T cells induce other T cells to become suppressor T
cells and involve in regulation of the immune response.
 These cells have common phenotypic characteristics.

T-suppressor cells
 Suppressor effector T cells bind antigen and release factor

that inactivate T-helper cells.

 T-suppressor cells can: Suppress delayed –type
hypersensitivity reactions, Prevent proliferation and
antibody secretion by antigen-binding B cells, Suppress
antibody secretion by some types of B cells
 T-CYTOTOXIC CELLS
 These cells recognize certain histocompatibility
antigens and are capable of killing foreign cells (i.e.,
virus) and altered self-cells (i.e. tumor antigens).
 T-cytotoxic cells are important in the cytotoxicity of
graft reactions and graft-versus- host reactions.
 Cytolysis requires direct contact between the T-
cytotoxic cell and the target cell, occurs as a result of
antigen specific receptors on the T-cells.
 T-CONTRASUPPRESSOR CELLS
 These cells present the inactivation of T-helper
and T-inducer cells by the action of suppressor
effector T-cells.
 They are antigen specific and may be important
in immunologic memory. 
 B-LYMPHOCYTES
 B lymphocytes represents 3 to 15% of
circulating lymphoid cells and are primarily
defined by surface immunoglobulin (Ig).
 The B lymphocytes are common in areas of
antibody production, such as the germinal centers
of the lymph nodes and diffuse lymphoid tissue
of mucosal systems. 
 FUNCTION OF A B CELL
 The main function of a B cell is to secrete soluble recognition
molecules called antibodies which specifically bind to an antigen
recognized by that B cell.
 Throughout the life, bone marrow remains the major repository of
stem cells for B lymphocytes.
 A B cell will only produce antibodies when it has been activated by
binding antigen; this activation process also usually requires help
from T cells. The activated B cell undergoes multiple divisions and
some of the resulting cells differentiate into antibody-secreting
cells. These are known as plasma cells, and they possess copious
rough endoplasmic reticulum involved in antibody synthesis.
 FUNCTION OF A B CELL
 An important aspect of antigen recognition by B
cells is that these lymphocytes, and the antibodies
they produce, bind to antigens in their natural or
native form, i.e. as they occur as constituents of
pathogens
 NATURAL KILLER CELLS
 Natural killer (NK) cells constitute up to 15% of human blood
lymphocytes.
 Together with δ T cells and about 50% of CD8+ T cells they are
known as large granular lymphocytes because, compared with most T
and B lymphocytes, they have more cytoplasm and contain prominent
granules.
 In contrast to all T and B cells, NK cells do not express antigen-
specific receptors and do not possess the adaptive property of memory
cell development; they are therefore considered to form part of the
innate immune system.
 Their main function is to kill infected cells and tumor cells by
inducing apoptosis of their targets.
 NATURAL KILLER CELLS
 Since they lack antigen receptors, NK cells do not
recognize specific antigens on the surface of a target
cell.
 Instead, they detect molecular changes in the surface
of a cell which are indicative of that cell being
abnormal and therefore a potential threat to the body.
 They kill cells with reduced expression of MHC
class I molecules, as can result from viral infection
or malignant transformation.
 NATURAL KILLER CELLS
 NK cells express surface ligands for MHC class I
known as killer inhibitory receptors (KIRs)
because their binding to MHC class I on the
surface of a potential target cell inhibits the
cytotoxic activity of the NK cell.
 This prevents NK cells from killing normal
tissue cells with normal levels of MHC class I
expression. 
PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGANS
 Lymphoid stem cells undergo proliferation differentiation
and maturation into T and B cells.
 Acquire antigen specific reception.
 After maturation T and B cells migrate to secondary
lymphoid organs.
 In mammals - Thymus, Bone marrow
 In Birds -Thymus, Bursa of Fabricius Major sites of
Lymphopoiesis
 T cell - Thymus, B cell - Bone marrow Control Peripheral
Lymphoid Organs.
 1.BONE MARROW
 Site of blood cell formation.
 B cell origin and mature E.g. Humans and Mice
Fat cells, bony tissue, dendritic cells Stomatal
cells interact with B cells Secrete cytokines.
 Selection process occur.
 It is not the site of B cell development in all
species.
 2. THYMUS
 THYMUS Bilobed organ.
 Situated above the heart.
 Each lobe enclosed by capsule
 Each lobule separated by connective tissue called trabeculae.
 contain Outer Cortex – Inner Medulla –
 Immature T cells in called – Thymocytes
 Thymic epithetical cells in outer cortex called Nurse cells.
 Hassall's corpuscles – contain degenerating epithelial cells.
 Site of T cell development and maturation.
 Development of cell mediated immunity. Thymic epithelial cells produce
hormones thymosin and thymopoietin.
 T cell receptor generated. Recognizing antigen MHC complex.
 T cells protect body from infections
 SECONDARY ORGANS
 Organs in which antibodies are formed.
 Antigen trapping and lymph filtration
mechanism.
 Receive immuno competently cells (primary
lymphoid organ for making them and active).
 Spleen
 Lymph nodes

 Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue.(MALT)

 LYMPH NODES
 Solid encapsulated bean shaped structure.
 Seen in Armpits, Mesenteries.

 Network packed with lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells.

 Three concentric regions :-

Cortex , Para cortex, Medulla

CORTEX :
 - Outer most layer Contains lymphocytes, macrophage, follicular dendritic cells arranged

in primary follicle
 Lymphoid tissues organized into structures - lymphoid follicle.

 Lymphoid follicle activated by antigen – primary follicle [ Follicular Dendritic Cell,

Resting B Cell ]
 Primary follicle develop into secondary follicle.

 In children with B cell deficiency cortex lack primary follicles and germinal centers. 
 LYMPH NODES

PARACORTEX :-
 [ T lymphocytes, interdigiting dendritic cells ].
Thymus dependent area – Para cortex
 Thymus independent area – Cortex
 Class II MHC present.

MEDULLA :-
Inner most layer
 LYMPH NODES
 Antigen reaches regional node (lymph)
 It is trapped Class II MHC molecules – Antigen
( interdigitating dendritic cells)
 Resulting activation of TH cells.
 Activation of B cells.
 Initial activation of B cells take place within Para cortex.
 B cells differentiate into plasma cell.
 Secreting IgG.
 Secondary follicle develop. ( Follicular dendritic cell, B cell,
TH cell )