diode bridge

Electronics Overview

Basic Circuits, Power Supplies,

Transistors, Cable Impedance
 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Basic Circuit Analysis

• What we won’t do:
– common electronics-class things: RLC, filters, detailed
analysis
• What we will do:
– set out basic relations
– look at a few examples of fundamental importance (mostly
resistive circuits)
– look at diodes, voltage regulation, transistors
– discuss impedances (cable, output, etc.)

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

The Basic Relations

• V is voltage (volts: V); I is current (amps: A); R is
resistance (ohms: ); C is capacitance (farads: F); L
is inductance (henrys: H)
• Ohm’s Law: V = IR; V = ; V = L(dI/dt)
• Power: P = IV = V2/R = I2R
• Resistors and inductors in series add
• Capacitors in parallel add
• Resistors and inductors in parallel, and capacitors in
series add according to:

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Example: Voltage divider

• Voltage dividers are a classic way to
set a voltage
• Works on the principle that all charge
flowing through the first resistor goes R1
through the second
– so V  R-value V Vout
– provided any load at output is 1
negligible: otherwise some current R2 3
goes there too 2
• So Vout = V(R2/(R1 + R2))
• R2 here is a variable resistor, or
potentiometer, or “pot”
– typically three terminals: R12 is fixed,
tap slides along to vary R13 and R23,
though R13 + R23 = R12 always

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Real Batteries: Output Impedance

• A power supply (battery) is characterized by a
voltage (V) and an output impedance (R)
– sometimes called source impedance
• Hooking up to load: Rload, we form a voltage
divider, so that the voltage applied by the battery
R terminal is actually Vout = V(Rload/(R+Rload))
– thus the smaller R is, the “stiffer” the power supply
V
– when Vout sags with higher load current, we call this
“droop”
• Example: If 10.0 V power supply droops by 1%
(0.1 V) when loaded to 1 Amp (10  load):
D-cell example: 6A
out of 1.5 V battery – internal resistance is 0.1 
indicates 0.25  output – called output impedance or source impedance
impedance – may vary with load, though (not a real resistor)

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Power Supplies and Regulation

• A power supply typically starts with a transformer
– to knock down the 340 V peak-to-peak (120 V AC) to something
reasonable/manageable
• We will be using a center-tap transformer
A A’

AC input CT AC output

B B’

– (A’  B’) = (winding ratio)(A  B)

• when A > B, so is A’ > B’
– geometry of center tap (CT) guarantees it is midway between A’
and B’ (frequently tie this to ground so that A’ = B’)
– note that secondary side floats: no ground reference built-in

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Diodes
• Diodes are essentially one-way current gates
• Symbolized by:
• Current vs. voltage graphs:

acts just like a wire

(will support arbitrary
I I I I
current) provided that
voltage is positive
V V 0.6 V V V
plain resistor diode idealized diode WAY idealized diode

the direction the

arrow points in the
diode symbol is the
direction that current
will flow
no current flows current flows
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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Diode Makeup
• Diodes are made of semiconductors (usually silicon)
• Essentially a stack of p-doped and n-doped silicon to
form a p-n junction
– doping means deliberate impurities that contribute extra
electrons (n-doped) or “holes” for electrons (p-doped)
• Transistors are n-p-n or p-n-p arrangements of
semiconductors

p-type n-type

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

LEDs: Light-Emitting Diodes

• Main difference is material is more exotic than silicon used in ordinary
diodes/transistors
– typically 2-volt drop instead of 0.6 V drop
• When electron flows through LED, loses energy by emitting a photon of
light rather than vibrating lattice (heat)
• LED efficiency is 30% (compare to incandescent bulb at 10%)
• Must supply current-limiting resistor in series:
– figure on 2 V drop across LED; aim for 1–10 mA of current

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What are LEDs?

Light Emitting Diodes
Diode Symbol + Arrows for light
Points to ground
Hello World for a Circuit
Light and LED
Parts:
Battery
Resistor
LED

Why:
Power Source
An LED will light up when enough voltage is supplied but can
also burn out if too much is allowed to pass through. The
resistor will limit the voltage to prevent damage.

Do:
Connect Battery, Resistor, LED
LED Circuit

1 LED Plus resistor

Why have a resistor?
Current, limiting.
Parallel Circuit example
Parallel and Series Circuit Example
Fundamental Parts

Resistor
Capacitor
Wire
Diodes
Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
Battery
Transistors
Motors
They each have a physical property that interacts with
electricity. When put in combination various actions occur.
What are resistors?

Resistors provide a specific amount of resistance to a path in a

circuit or wire. Ohm's law is used to calculate the
properties related to resistance.

Ohm's Law:  I = V/R

I = Current measured in Amps
V = Voltage measured in Volts
R = Resistance measured in Ohms

Resistors are color coded.

Resistor Color Code

Resistor Color Code Wheel Calculator

Variable resistor: The potentiometer

Voltage dividers
Try out the different pots.
RGB LED

Try resistors out in various combination to make different colors.

Experiment by adding potentiometers to the leads.
LED and Photoresistor

Photoresistors change their resistance by the amount of light

detected.
What are capacitors?

Capacitor is two separated charges.
Known charge up time.
Know discharge time.
Two major kinds
• Electrolytic, asymmetric, bipolar 
• Ceramic, symmetric
Capacitors in series
Capacitors in Parallel

They can provide energy, however briefly.

They can smooth out a signal.

Attach the battery briefly to fill the capacitor.

Capacitors in series and parallel
Make a voltage regulator
Turn things on and off with a:

Wire
Button
Photoresistor
Hall Effect Sensor
Relay
Transistor
Button
Switch
Transistors

NPN Transistor 
Hall Effect Sensor
Reed Switch Example

A reed switch is closed when a magnet is in close proximity.

It is symmetric so it can placed either direction.
Tilt ball switch

Emergency on/off if project tips over.

Motors

Try changing the direction 

of the diode.
What happens?
Relay
 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Getting DC back out of AC

• AC provides a means for us to distribute electrical
power, but most devices actually want DC
– bulbs, toasters, heaters, fans don’t care: plug straight in
– sophisticated devices care because they have diodes and
transistors that require a certain polarity
• rather than oscillating polarity derived from AC
• this is why battery orientation matters in most electronics
• Use diodes to “rectify” AC signal
• Simplest (half-wave) rectifier uses one diode:
input voltage

AC source load

diode only conducts voltage seen by load

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Doing Better: Full-wave Diode Bridge

• The diode in the rectifying circuit simply prevented
the negative swing of voltage from conducting
– but this wastes half the available cycle
– also very irregular (bumpy): far from a “good” DC source
• By using four diodes, you can recover the negative
swing:
B & C conduct
input voltage
A B
AC source

A & D conduct
C load
D
voltage seen by load

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Full-Wave Dual-Supply
• By grounding the center tap, we have two opposite
AC sources
– the diode bridge now presents + and  voltages relative to
ground
– each can be separately smoothed/regulated
– cutting out diodes A and D makes a half-wave rectifier

AC source
A B
voltages seen by loads

C + load
D
 load

can buy pre-packaged diode bridges

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Smoothing out the Bumps

• Still a bumpy ride, but we can smooth this out with a
capacitor
– capacitors have capacity for storing charge
– acts like a reservoir to supply current during low spots
– voltage regulator smoothes out remaining ripple

A B capacitor
AC source

C load
D

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

How smooth is smooth?

V
• An RC circuit has a time constant  = RC
– because dV/dt = I/C, and I = V/R  dV/dt = V/RC C R
– so V is V0exp(t/)
• Any exponential function starts out with slope =
Amplitude/
• So if you want < 10% ripple over 120 Hz (8.3 ms)
timescale…
– must have  = RC > 83 ms
– if R = 100 , C > 830 F

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Regulating the Voltage

• The unregulated, ripply voltage may not be at the
value you want
– depends on transformer, etc.
– suppose you want 15.0 V
• You could use a voltage divider to set the voltage
• But it would droop under load Vin
– output impedance  R1 || R2 R1
– need to have very small R1, R2 to make “stiff”
Vout
– the divider will draw a lot of current
– perhaps straining the source
1 Rload
R2 3
– power expended in divider >> power in load
2
• Not a “real” solution
• Important note: a “big load” means a small resistor
value: 1  demands more current than 1 M
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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

The Zener Regulator

• Zener diodes break down at some reverse
voltage
– can buy at specific breakdown voltages
– as long as some current goes through
zener, it’ll work zener voltage
– good for rough regulation
• Conditions for working: high slope is what makes the
zener a decent voltage regulator
– let’s maintain some minimal current, Iz
through zener (say a few mA)
Vin
– then (Vin  Vout)/R1 = Iz + Vout/Rload sets the
requirement on R1 R1
– because presumably all else is known
Vout = Vz
– if load current increases too much, zener
shuts off (node drops below breakdown) Rload
Z
and you just have a voltage divider with the
load

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Voltage Regulator IC
note zeners
• Can trim down ripply voltage to
precise, rock-steady value
• Now things get complicated!
– We are now in the realm of
integrated circuits (ICs)
• ICs are whole circuits in small
packages
• ICs contain resistors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors,
etc.

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Voltage Regulators
• The most common voltage regulators are the
LM78XX (+ voltages) and LM79XX ( voltages)
– XX represents the voltage
• 7815 is +15; 7915 is 15; 7805 is +5, etc
– typically needs input > 3 volts above output (reg.) voltage

beware that housing is not always ground

• A versatile regulator is the LM317 (+) or LM337 ()

– 1.2–37 V output
– Vout = 1.25(1+R2/R1) + IadjR2
– Up to 1.5 A
– picture at right can go to 25 V
– datasheetcatalog.com for details
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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Transistors
• Transistors are versatile, highly non-linear
devices
• Two frequent modes of operation:
– amplifiers/buffers
– switches
• Two main flavors:
– npn (more common) or pnp, describing doping C E

structure B B

• Also many varieties: E C

– bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) such as npn, pnp npn pnp

– field effect transistors (FETs): n-channel and p-
channel
– metal-oxide-semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs)
• We’ll just hit the essentials of the BJT here
– MOSFET in later lecture
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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

BJT Amplifier Mode

• Central idea is that when in the right regime, the BJT
collector-emitter current is proportional to the base
current:
– namely, Ice = Ib, where  (sometimes hfe) is typically ~100
– In this regime, the base-emitter voltage is ~0.6 V
– below, Ib = (Vin  0.6)/Rb; Ice = Ib = (Vin  0.6)/Rb
– so that Vout = Vcc  IceRc = Vcc  (Vin  0.6)(Rc/Rb)
– ignoring DC biases, wiggles on Vin become  (Rc/Rb) bigger
(and inverted): thus amplified
Vcc

Rc

Rb out C
in B

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Switching: Driving to Saturation

• What would happen if the base current is so big that
the collector current got so big that the voltage drop
across Rc wants to exceed Vcc?
– we call this saturated: Vc  Ve cannot dip below ~0.2 V
– even if Ib is increased, Ic won’t budge any more
• The example below is a good logic inverter
– if Vcc = 5 V; Rc = 1 k; Ic(sat)  5 mA; need Ib > 0.05 mA
– so Rb < 20 k would put us safely into saturation if Vin = 5V
– now 5 V in  ~0.2 V out;
Vcc < 0.6 V in  5 V out

Rc

Rb out
in

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012
Vcc

in
Transistor Buffer
out
R

• In the hookup above (emitter follower), Vout = Vin  0.6

– sounds useless, right?
– there is no voltage “gain,” but there is current gain
– Imagine we wiggle Vin by V: Vout wiggles by the same V
– so the transistor current changes by Ie = V/R
– but the base current changes 1/ times this (much less)
– so the “wiggler” thinks the load is V/Ib = ·V/Ie = R
– the load therefore is less formidable
• The “buffer” is a way to drive a load without the driver
feeling the pain (as much): it’s impedance isolation
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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Improved Zener Regulator

• By adding a transistor to the zener
regulator from before, we no longer
have to worry as much about the current
being pulled away from the zener to the Vin Vin
load
– the base current is small Rz
– Rload effectively looks  times bigger
Vz
– real current supplied through transistor
Vreg
• Can often find zeners at 5.6 V, 9.6 V, Z
Rload
12.6 V, 15.6 V, etc. because drop from
base to emitter is about 0.6 V
– so transistor-buffered Vreg comes out to
5.0, 9.0, etc.
• Iz varies less in this arrangement, so the
regulated voltage is steadier

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Switching Power Supplies

• Power supplies without transformers
– lightweight; low cost
– can be electromagnetically noisy
• Use a DC-to-DC conversion process
that relies on flipping a switch on and
off, storing energy in an inductor and
capacitor
– regulators were DC-to-DC converters too,
but lossy: lose P = IV of power for
voltage drop of V at current I
– regulators only down-convert, but
switchers can also up-convert
– switchers are reasonably efficient at
conversion

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 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Switcher topologies

The FET switch is turned off or on in a pulse-width-modulation (PWM) scheme,

the duty cycle of which determines the ratio of Vout to Vin

from: http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/4087
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