CONTROL

SYSTEMS
AND DRUGS
MUFP
 The differences between the somatic and autonomic nervous
Recall systems. Evaluate the need for unconscious and conscious
control systems.

The stages, structures and sequence of the reflex arc: Stimulus,

Recall Receptor, Sensory neuron, Effector neuron, Effector, Response.

Describe The structure of sensory, motor and relay neurons.

TOPIC 1:
CONTROL Describe
The formation and nature of the nervous impulse.
and explain
SYSTEMS
AND DRUGS Describe
The mechanism of a synapse.
and explain

The nature of different transmitter substances and effects

Appreciate of drugs on nervous system.

The use of nervous control in maintenance of constant body

Explain temperature as inputs from skin and blood using the
hypothalamus as a control centre with responses in the skin
T H E N E RV O U S S Y S T E M

Central nervous system

(CNS): consists of the brain and
spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

(PNS): consists of nerves
between the CNS and receptors
or effectors

Cranial and spinal nerves make

up the PNS
 THREE TYPES OF NEURONES

Sensory neurones = transmit impulses from receptors

to the CNS

Relay neurones
(intermediate/connector/interneurons/association
neurones) = transmit impulses between sensory and
motor neurones

Motor neurones = transmit impulses from CNS to

effectors
S E N S ORY N EU R O NE

Sensory neurones have one long axon with a cell body that may be
near the source of a stimuli or in a swelling of a spinal nerve
known as a ganglion
 MOTOR NEURONE
Motor neurones transmit impulses from the CNS to effectors such as muscle or
glands

The cell body lies within the spinal cord or brain. The nucleus is always found
in the cell body and often dark specs are found in the cytoplasm representing the
rough endoplasmic reticulum

Dendrites are referred to as thin cytoplasmic extensions that extend from the cell
body. Some may be short and often have many branches. Many highly branched
dendrites allows a large surface area to be acquired

The axon is much longer than the cell body and is responsible for carrying impulses over long distances. Some organelles are
found within the axon such as mitochondria where the ends of the axons have many mitochondria along with many vesicles
carrying transmitter substances to the effectors – muscle or gland
MOTOR NEURONE
M Y E L I N AT I O N
Axons of both motor and sensory neurones are myelinated for majority of their
lengths.

Myelin exists due to specialized cells called Schwann cells that wrap themselves
around the axon all along its length creating many enclosing layers called a
myelin sheath. It is largely made up of lipids and proteins. Not all neurones are
myelinated where 2/3 of motor and sensory neurones are found to be
unmyelinated

There are some small spaces of the axon that are not enclosed with myelin. Being
about 2-3μm in size and occurring every 1-3mm in human neurones, the nodes of
Ranvier allow nerve impulses to travel along myelinated neurones faster than
those that are unmyelinated
R E L AY N E U R O N E

These unmyelinated neurones are found within the CNS particularly in

the grey matter

The speed of impulses travelling through the axon of these neurones is

relatively slower
REFLEX ARC
 REFLEX ARC
This is the pathway along which impulses are carried without utilising the ‘conscious’ regions of the brain. The pathway in
which the impulses undertake is as follows:
Sensory neurone Motor neurone

STIMULUS  RECEPTOR  CNS  EFFECTORS  RESPONSE

Relay neurones in
spinal cord

Other
Stimulus
reflex
= can
arcsbe
dointernal
not involve
or external
relay neurones
in respectand
to rather
the body
carry impulses directly from sensory to motor neurones

Simultaneously
Receptor = specialised
when thecells
impulse
for detecting
is carriedstimuli
from the motor neurone to the effector, impulses are carried through the cord to
the brain. The effectors respond therefore before any voluntary action occurs from the conscious regions of the brain called a
reflex
CNS action.
= responsible in the coordination of the body’s response to the stimuli

AEffectors
fast response
= muscles
is therefore
or glands
created
usedwhich
to deliver
the response
the response
to all stimuli is the same. Reflex actions are used in survival example
touching something hot.
Response = muscles will contract or glands will secrete substances
Some reflexes can be learned known as conditioned responses/reflexes
 O R G A N I S AT I O N O F T H E N E R V O U S
SYSTEM
Somatic nervous system = known as
the voluntary nervous system and
consists of sensory and motor
CNS neurones to and from skeletal muscle

Sympathetic nervous
system (SNS) = known
as a type of involuntary
Nervous system nervous system where
organs are controlled in
times of stress

PNS
Autonomic nervous system = Parasympathetic
known as the involuntary nervous nervous system (PSNS)
system and consists of motor = known as a type of
neurones to internal organs involuntary nervous
system where organs
are controlled in times
of rest
S Y M P AT H E T I C N E R V O U S S Y S T E M ( S N S )
The cell bodies of its motor
PUPIL
neurones lie in ganglia outside the
spinal cord
SALIVARY
From these ganglia sympathetic
GLAND
motor axons pass to all organs of
HEART the body, eventually synapsing
with muscles, e.g. cardiac, smooth
BRONCHI The transmitter liberated at these
synapses is usually noradrenaline
– it stimulates organ activity
LIVER
Ach is released at motor endings in
STOMACH/SMALL sweat glands, hair erector muscles
INTESTINE and some blood vessels. It too
KIDNEY/ADRENAL
causes stimulation
GLAND
LARGE SNS functions are FIGHT OR
INTESTINE FLIGHT
BLADDER/
GENITALS
PA R A S Y M PAT H E T I C N E V R O U S S Y S T E M
(PSNS) The nerve pathways all begin
in the brain, or at the top or
PUPIL
bottom of the Spinal cord
SALIVARY The neurones terminal is
GLAND found inside the organs. Here
BRONCHI they synapse with a motor
neurone
HEART The transmitter liberated at
these synapses is
STOMACH/SMALL acetylcholine and this has an
INTESTINE inhibitory effect on the organ
PANCREAS
Many parasympathetic axons
are part of the vagus nerve.
LARGE PSNS functions are REST
INTESTINE AND DIGEST

BLADDER/
GENITALS
 SNS AND
PA R A S Y M PAT H E T I C
EFFECTS
 P U P I L C O N S T R I C T I O N A N D D I L AT I O N

The iris is the coloured part of the eye that contains

radial and circular muscles where there activity can
change the pupil diameter

The pupil is the dark space in the centre of the eye

In very bright light, PSNS stimulates the circular muscles to contract

narrowing the pupil diameter

In dim light, excitement or fear the SNS stimulates the radial muscles to
contract dilating the pupil
 U N D E R S TA N D I N G N E RV E I M P U L S E S
It is NOT a flow of electrons through the axon like an electric current

Seen as very brief changes in the distribution of electrical charge across the cell-surface membrane called
action potentials

Caused by the very rapid movement of sodium and potassium ions into and out of the axon allowing for
impulses to travel rapidly along the plasma membrane from one cell end to the other

Studies into nerve impulses was done using organisms that have neurones with wide axons such as squid and
earthworms. Tiny electrodes were inserted in to the cytoplasm of the axons to measure the changes in
electrical charge

The resting potential (mV) is first established …

 RESTING POTENTIAL

In a resting axon, it is found that there is a slight negative charge (negative potential) compared to the outside
of the axon

This potential difference of the inside compared to the outside is about -70mV meaning, the inside of the axon
is about 70mV lower than the outside = resting potential
RESTING POTENTIAL
1. Resting potential is created and maintained firstly by the sodium-
potassium pumps in which the hydrolysis of ATP allows three sodium
ions to be pumped out of the axon and two potassium ions to be
pumped into the axon. This process is continuous where both ions are
moved against their concentration gradients
2. The membrane has sodium and potassium channels that span the cell-
surface membrane but there are a lot more potassium channels than
sodium therefore, potassium ions diffuse out faster compared to
sodium ions coming in. Additionally there are large negatively
charged molecules inside the axon which will attract the potassium
ions reducing their chance of diffusing out. An overall negative
charge is established
3. The membrane is relatively impermeable to sodium ions. A steep
concentration gradient of sodium ions and negative charge inside the
cell creates a ‘double’ gradient, called an electrochemical gradient
4. As well the regular sodium and potassium channels (leak channels),
there are some channels found within the plasma membrane called
voltage-gated channels which are specific to each type of ion. These
are closed during the resting potential and open depending on the
change in potential
Stimulus = When a stimulus causes
ACTION POTENTIALS Repolarisation = All voltage-gated
excitation of the neurone, initially sodium ion channels close and
allowing a few voltage-gated sodium voltage-gated potassium ion channels
ion channels open allowing sodium open slowly allowing for an outflux
to move down its very steep of potassium ions down its
electrochemical gradient into the concentration gradient. There is also
axon. As a result the potential a little amount of potassium ions
difference changes becoming less moving out through the potassium
negative/more positive in the inside leak channels (as seen in maintenance
establishing depolarisation. of the resting potential). This outward
Depolarisation = The influx of movement causes positive charge to
sodium ions causes more voltage- be removed from inside the axon
gated sodium ion channels to snap therefore returning to the resting
open allowing a greater amount of potential.
sodium ions to come into the axon Hyperpolarisation = Voltage-gated
down the electrochemical gradient, potassium ion channels are slow to
thus an increase in depolarisation. If close therefore the potential
the potential difference reaches - difference becomes more negative
55mV (threshold potential), more than the resting potential inside the
voltage-gated sodium ion channels axon as too many potassium ions
IMPORTANT = If the threshold potential is not met then an
will open allowing for an even have left. The sodium-potassium
action potential is not created hence no nerve impulse. This
greater influx of sodium ions causing pump along with the leak channels
is called the all-or-none principal
the potential to reach 30mV. A allow the resting potential to be
process of positive feedback is used restored =
throughout
 TRANSMISSION OF ACTION POTENTIALS
An action potential generate in one area of the axon membrane causes the resting region ahead to become depolarised
allowing for an action potential to occur here = local circuit.

Any region behind where the action potential has been generated will not be able to become depolarised as it is still
recovering from an action potential being generated where the voltage-gated sodium ion channels are shut tight.
What is the importance of this?
The nerve impulses can progress forward towards the axon terminals and not backwards

Period of recovery is known as the refractory period

 R EF R AC TO RY P E R I OD
Refractory period is regarded as the axon being unresponsive. It consists of two parts:

1. Absolute refractory period = Voltage-gated sodium ion channels remain closed no matter what
stimulus/stimuli is applied
2. Relative refractory period = Some of the voltage-gated sodium ion channels have opened allowing an
influx of sodium ions but to reach the threshold potential from here is harder

Consequently, a few conclusions can be drawn:

3. Action potentials are said to be ‘discrete’ where they do not merge into one another
4. There is minimum amount of time between action potentials occurring at any one place one place
5. The length of the refractory period determines the maximum frequency at which impulses are
transmitted along neurones
Neuron action potential description (video) | Khan Academy

Neuron action potential mechanism (video) | Khan Academy

 HOW IMPULSES DIFFER
Encountering different stimuli does not change the size of any one action potential. All action potentials will
peak at 30mV. Example, a very bright light compared to a very dim light shining into your eyes will create the
same size peak

The speed at which each action potential occurs stays the same also

What does differ is the frequency in which this occurs. This is how many action potentials (succession of
action potentials) are created in a given time frame when stimuli are compared

The brain will interpret the frequency of action potentials and also the number of neurones involved to get an
idea of the strength of the stimulus

The nature of the stimulus is deduced from the sensory neurone that is carrying the impulse and its position
 S A LT AT O R Y C O N D U C T I O N , D I A M E T E R O F
A X O N S A N D T E M P E R AT U R E
Nerve impulses travel up to 50 times faster in myelinated neurones compared to unmyelinated neurones

The myelin speeds up the rate of transmission of action potentials due to two factors:
1. Parts of the axon that are myelinated means sodium and potassium ions cannot pass through the axon
membrane making it impossible for depolarisation and thus action potentials to arise in these areas
2. All sodium-potassium pumps, leak channels and voltage-gated channels are concentrated at the nodes of
Ranvier where depolarisation and therefore action potentials are created

Transmission is said to be slow at the nodes of Ranvier and are relatively quickly in parts of the axon that are
myelinated. Hence action potentials ‘jump from node to node’ called saltatory conduction

Diameter of axons also affect the speed of

transmission where a larger diameter would
mean less resistance therefore a faster rate of
transmission

Temperature increase causes the speed of

conduction to increase as the diffusion of ions
is faster. After 40˚C the protein channels start
to denature
Axon X and axon Y are both myelinated. Under the same temperature, axon Y conducted 140 action
Q
potentials in 0.5s compared to axon X which conducted 125 action potentials in the same time frame.

What other factor may be influencing this difference? (1 MARK)

The axon diameter. Axon Y has a larger diameter than axon X reducing resistance

IMPORTANT = Questions on factors affect the rate of transmission should be answered as myelination
and/or diameter of axon
 SYNAPSES
Two neurones do not quite touch. There is a small gap about 20nm wide called the synaptic cleft

This, together with the parts of two neurones immediately near the synaptic cleft is called the synapse. There
are up to 500 trillion synapses in the human body

Synaptic vesicle

Postsynaptic
Presynaptic membrane
membrane

Synaptic Synaptic cleft

knob
Chemically-gated ion
channels with receptors
S Y N A P T I C T R A N S M I S S I O N O V E RV I E W
Neurotransmitters are substances that allow impulses to be
carried from the presynaptic neurone (neurone before the
synapse) to the postsynaptic neurone (neurone after the
synapse).
An action potential in the synaptic knob of the presynaptic
neurone causing the synaptic vesicles carrying the
neurotransmitters to fuse with the presynaptic membrane
releasing the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft by
exocytosis

The neurotransmitters then diffuse across the synaptic cleft to

the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane where they bind
temporarily
The postsynaptic neurone responds to the impulse arriving
where if the depolarisation is above the threshold, an action
potential is generated. In other synapses, muscle contraction
can take place or the release of a hormone
 CHOLINERGIC SYNAPSES
One type of neurotransmitter is acetylcholine (Ach). Synapses involving Ach are
called cholinergic synapses and the steps is as follows:
1. The arrival of an action potential at the synaptic knob of the presynaptic
neurone stimulates not only voltage-gated sodium ion channels to open but
also voltage-gated calcium ion channels (located at the part of the
presynaptic membrane that is closest to the synaptic cleft) to open.
Therefore not only do sodium ions diffuse into the synaptic knob but also
calcium ions diffuse in down its steep electrochemical gradient
2. The influx of calcium ions into the synaptic knob causes the synaptic
vesicles carrying Ach to fuse with the presynaptic membrane. This causes
Ach to be released into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis
3. Ach diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to cholinergic/nicotinic
acetylcholine receptors on the chemically-gated sodium ion channels located
within the postsynaptic membrane. This causes a conformational change of
the ion channel thus opening it and allowing sodium ions to diffuse into the
postsynaptic neurone down its electrochemical gradient causing
depolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane. An action potential to be
created if above the threshold, for example
4. Acetylcholinesterase (AchE) breaks down the acetylcholine into acetate
(some sources may say ethanoic acid) and choline preventing permanent
depolarisation of the postsynaptic neurone. The choline is taken up by the
presynaptic neurone and is combined with acetyl coenzyme A to form Ach
once again with the use of ATP
 Q
Describe the sequence of events involved in transmission across a cholinergic synapse (5 MARKS)

IMPORTANT = Do not include the breakdown of acetylcholine in your answer!

• Action potentials are carried to the synaptic knob of the presynaptic neurone causing depolarisation of the
presynaptic membrane
• Voltage-gated calcium ion channels open allowing an influx of calcium ions into the synaptic knob down its
electrochemical gradient
• This causes the synaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine to fuse with the presynaptic membrane releasing
this neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis
• Acetylcholine diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to cholinergic receptors associated with
chemically-gated sodium ion channels within the postsynaptic membrane
• Sodium ions diffuse into the postsynaptic neurone down its electrochemical gradient causing depolarisation

Explaining how acetylcholine generates an action potential would mean including what points?
• Acetylcholine binds to cholinergic receptors associated with chemically-gated sodium ion channels on the
postsynaptic membrane (USE THE NAME OF THE NEURONE IF GIVEN ALSO)
• This causes sodium ions to enter the postsynaptic neurone (USE NAME AGAIN) down its electrochemical
gradient causing depolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane
• If the threshold potential is met an action potential is generated
 NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTIONS
Some synapses do not consist of two neurones but are made up of a presynaptic neurone (motor neurone)
creating a motor end plate synapsing with a postsynaptic membrane of a muscle fibre, called the sarcolemma.

These muscle fibres belong to striated and smooth muscle found throughout the body which are described to
be neurogenic
 H O R M O N A L C O M M U N I C AT I O N
The control via the nervous system is very fast in comparison to the hormonal communication but is highly
energy demanding in which sodium and potassium ions are constantly pumped to maintain the resting potential,
all channels are made via protein synthesis and cells such as neurones and Schwann cells need to be sustained

Hormones are released in tiny amounts that disperse throughout the body in the blood.

Hormonal control system Nervous control system

Chemical Electrical impulses
Transported in blood Transported within neurones
Slower response Very fast response
Longer effect period Shorter effect period
Affects target tissues Affects target tissues
Can affect the whole body Affects specific cells/tissues
Coordinates activities of long duration Coordinates rapid and precise responses
with potential multiple organs example
growth, reproduction, homeostasis
 I M P O RTA N C E O F S Y N A P S E S
Synapses slow down the speed of an impulse where a response to a stimulus would be a lot quicker if neurones were
continuous with no breakages

• Synapses ensure one-way transmission = Neurotransmitters are released from one side to the other where they bind to
complementary receptors which are found on chemical-gated ion channels found only on the postsynaptic neurone.
Sometimes two or more nerve impulses are carried along the presynaptic neurone. As a result, more neurotransmitters will
be released which will have a greater effect of the postsynaptic neurone, called temporal summation
• Synapses allow an interconnection of nerve pathways and integration of impulses = Sensory neurones have many
branches at the axon terminal which form many synapses with many relay neurones. Many relay neurones can synapse
with one cell body of a motor neurone, known to be spatial summation. Transmission of impulses can only occur in the
motor neurone once the threshold potential has been overcome. An advantage of this is that impulses with a low frequency
do not travel from the sensory neurone to the brain preventing overload with sensory information
• Synapses may be involved in memory and learning = This is till being researched but new synapses may be made which
are may be involved in recognising particular faces and sounds
 Type Neurotransmitter Excitatory or Effect
inhibitory
Glutamate Excitatory (common) Found in the CNS causing depolarisation
Gamma-aminobutyric acid Inhibitory (common) Found in the brain causing hyperpolarisation
Amino acid =
(GABA)
involved in most
functions Glycine Inhibitory (common) Found in the spinal cord causing
hyperpolarisation
Dopamine (Catecholamine) Excitatory OR inhibitory Found in the brain
Serotonin Inhibitory Found in the spinal cord causing
Biogenic amines
hyperpolarisation
(Monoamines) =
attention, Norepinephrine Excitatory OR inhibitory Part of the PNS in the SNS
cognition, emotion (Catecholamine)
Epinephrine (Catecholamine) Excitatory OR inhibitory Depolarisation of neurones part of the PNS in
the SNS. Hyperpolarisation in some areas of
the brain
Histamine Excitatory Found in the CNS causing depolarisation
Peptides (Opioids) Endorphin Inhibitory Found in the brain causing hyperpolarisation
= pain
Purigenic Acetylcholine Excitatory OR inhibitory Depolarisation of neurones as part of
neuromuscular junctions, Hyperpolarisation for
neurones of the heart
 A B Q

Inhibitory neurotransmitters inhibit by binding to their complementary receptors

associated with chemically-gated chloride ion channels

Explain why no action potentials are created in B and what would be the benefit of this
scenario taking place?
 A B

Inhibitory neurotransmitters bind to receptors associated with voltage-gated chloride ion

channels allowing an influx on chloride ions into the postsynaptic neurone down its
electrochemical gradient causing hyperpolarisation.
This allows the postsynaptic neurone to be regulated by preventing an action potential
from occurring
SOME DISEASES LINKED TO NEURONES –
EFFECTS?
 DRUGS AND THEIR EFFECTS
Drug Action of drug Effect on synapse
Drugs that are similar Endorphin Binds to receptor Inhibits impulses
shape to Morphine, Codeine, Heroin Bind to receptor Inhibits impulses – blocking
neurotransmitters are pain
complimentary to
Valium Increases binding of GABA Inhibits impulses
receptors and create the (inhibitory transmitter) to
same effect of the receptors
neurotransmitter itself=
AGONISTS Ecstasy (MDMA) Binds to receptors to allow Stimulates impulses
new impulses
Cocaine Causes noradrenaline to stay Stimulates impulses
Drugs that are similar in cleft.
shape to Magic mushrooms Combines with excitatory Creates new (inappropriate)
neurotransmitters are transmitters impulses
complimentary to Strychnine Inhibits breakdown of Ach Stimulates more impulses so
receptors and create no muscle spasms and breathing
effect on the neurone problems.
hence blocking the
Curare & atropine Block Ach receptors Inhibits impulses
receptors =
ANTAGONISTS DDT (insecticide) Inhibits breakdown of Ach Stimulates impulses
 DRUG EFFECT

   
Mimic a neurotransmitter Switch on a synapse

Stimulate the release of a Switch on a synapse

neurotransmitter
Open a neuroreceptor Switch on a synapse
channel
Block a neuroreceptor Switch off a synapse
channel
Inhibit the breakdown Switch on a synapse
enzyme
Inhibit the Na+K+ATPase Stop action potentials
pump
Block the Na+ or K+ channels Stop action potentials
C O N T R O L O F B O D Y T E M P E R AT U R E
Thermoregulation = control of body temperature. Along with the nervous system, the endocrine system is
involved in this regulation

Mammals release heat through respiration. Much of the heat is generated from liver cells as they have a huge
requirement of energy. The blood that flows through the liver is distributed through the body

The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that is the central control for body temperature, referred to as the
body’s ‘thermostat’. Thermoreceptor cells are present which are involved in detecting the core temperature
(37˚C in humans but fluctuates a little) and the surrounding temperature where sensory information is
constantly inputted
C O N T R O L O F B O D Y T E M P E R AT U R E
As well as the blood, the hypothalamus receives signals from specific heat receptors located in the skin

Due to the skin being the first to change in temperature because of the surroundings, it provides an ‘early
warning’ of a possible change in the core temperature

Drop in core or surrounding temp Rise in core or surrounding temp

Vasoconstriction = muscles in the walls of arterioles that Vasodilation = muscles in the walls of arterioles that
supply blood to capillaries near the skin’s surface contract supply blood to capillaries near the skin’s surface relax
narrowing the lumen and reducing blood supply stopping widening the lumen and increasing blood supply allowing
heat loss heat loss
Shivering = involuntary contraction of skeletal muscles Lowering body hairs = muscles at the base of hairs in the
creates heat which is absorbed by the blood and carried skin relax allowing the depth of fur to decrease releasing
through the body air close to the skin’s surface
Raising body hairs = muscles at the base of hairs in the Increase production of sweat = increases the loss of heat
skin contract allowing the depth of fur to increase trapping by evaporation from the skin surface
air close to the skin’s surface
Low production of sweat = reduces the loss of heat by
evaporation from the skin surface
Increase secretion of adrenaline = Increases the rate of
heat production in the liver
Solid arrows =
nervous control

Dashed arrows =
endocrine control