COMPOSTING

• Biodegradation is a natural, ongoing biological process that is a

common occurrence in both human-made and natural environments.
In the broadest sense, any organic material that can be biologically
decomposed is compostable.
• Composting is a diverse practice that includes a variety of approaches,
depending on the type of organic materials being composted and the
desired properties of the final product.
• Organic matter + O2 + aerobic bacteria CO2 + NH3 + H2O + other end
products + energy
• Compost is the end product of the composting process. The by-
products of this process are carbon dioxide and water. Compost is
peaty humus, dark in colour and has a crumbly texture, an earthy
odour, and resembles rich topsoil.
• Composts will not have any resemblance in the physical form to the
original waste from which it was derived.
• it is important to view compostable materials as usable and not as
waste requiring disposal
Benefits
• Composting is one of the important components of solid waste
management (SWM). It is a form of source reduction or waste
prevention, as the materials are completely diverted from the disposal
facilities and require no management or transportation.
• A major portion of municipal solid wastes in India contain up to 70% by
weight of organic materials.
• certain industrial by-products – those from food processing, agricultural
and paper industries – are mostly composed of organic materials.
• Composting, being an organic material, can significantly reduce waste
stream volume.
• Composting owes its current popularity to several factors, including
increased landfill tipping fees, shortage of landfill capacity and
increasingly restrictive measures imposed by regulatory agencies.
• Composting may also offer an attractive economic advantage for
communities where the costs of using other options are high
Biological processes
• Microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes as well as
larger organisms such as insects and earthworms play an active role in
decomposing the organic materials. As microorganisms begin to
decompose the organic material, they break down organic matter and
produce carbon dioxide, water, heat and humus (the relatively stable
organic end product). This humus end product is compost.
• Under optimal conditions, composting proceeds through the
following four phases
Mesophilic, or moderate-temperature
phase:
• Compost bacteria combine carbon with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
and energy.
• The microorganisms for reproduction and growth use some of the energy
and the rest is generated as heat. When a pile of organic refuse begins to
undergo the composting process, mesophilic bacteria proliferate, raising
the temperature of the composting mass up to 44°C.
• This is the first stage of the composting process. These mesophilic
bacteria can include E. coli and other bacteria from the human intestinal
tract, but these soon become increasingly inhibited by the temperature,
as the thermophilic bacteria take over in the transition range of 44°C –
52°C.
Thermophilic, or high-temperature phase:
• In the second stage of the process, the thermophilic microorganisms are very
active and produce heat.
• This stage can continue up to about 70°C, although such high temperatures
are neither common nor desirable in compost. This heating stage takes place
rather quickly and may last only a few days, weeks, or months.
• It tends to remain localised in the upper portion of a compost pile where the
fresh material is being added, whereas in batch compost, the entire
composting mass may be thermophilic all at once.
• After the thermophilic heating period, the manure will appear to have been
digested, but the coarser organic material will not be digested. This is when
the third stage of composting, i.e., the cooling phase, takes place.
Cooling phase
• During this phase, the microorganisms that were replaced by the
thermophiles migrate back into the compost and digest the more
resistant organic materials.
• Fungi and macro organisms such as earthworms and sow bugs that
break the coarser elements down into humus also move back in.
Maturation or curing phase
• The final stage of the composting process is called curing, ageing, or
maturing stage, and is a long and important one.
• A long curing period (e.g., a year after the thermophilic stage) adds a
safety net for pathogen destruction.
• Many pathogens have a limited period of viability in the soil, and the
longer they are subjected to the microbiological competition of the
compost pile the more likely they will die a swift death.
• Immature compost can be harmful to plants. Uncured compost can, for
example, produce phytotoxins (i.e., substances toxic to plants), robbing
the soil of oxygen and nitrogen and contain high levels of organic acids.
Chemical processes
• Several factors determine the chemical environment for composting.
These include the presence of an adequate carbon food/energy
source, a balanced amount of nutrients, the correct amount of water,
adequate oxygen, appropriate pH and the absence of toxic
constituents that could inhibit microbial activity
Carbon/energy source:
• For their carbon/energy source, microorganisms in the composting
process rely on carbon in the organic material, unlike higher plants
that rely on carbon dioxide and sunlight.
• The carbon contained in natural or human-based organic materials
may or may not be biodegradable.
• The relative ease with which a material is biodegraded depends on
the genetic makeup of the microorganisms present and the organic
molecules that the organism decomposes.
Nutrients:
• Among the plant nutrients (i.e., nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium), nitrogen is of greatest concern, because it is lacking in
some plant materials.
• The carbon-nitrogen ratio, which is established on the basis of
available carbon rather than total carbon, is considered critical in
determining the rate of decomposition.
• Leaves, for example, are a good source for carbon, and fresh grass,
manure and slaughterhouse waste are the sources for nitrogen.
• To aid the decomposition process, the bulk of the organic matter
should be carbon with just enough nitrogen.
Moisture:
• Water is an essential part of all forms of life, and the microorganisms
living in a compost pile are no exception.
• Since most compostable materials have lower than ideal water
content, i.e., 50 to 60% of total weight, the composting process may
be slower than desired, if water is not added.
• However, it should not be high enough to create excessive free flow
of water and movement caused by gravity.
• Excessive moisture and flowing water form leachate, which creates
potential liquid management problems including water and air
pollution (e.g., odour).
Oxygen:
• Composting is considered an aerobic process. Decomposition can occur
under both aerobic (requiring oxygen) and anaerobic (lacking oxygen)
conditions.
• The compost pile should have enough void space to allow free air
movement so that oxygen from the atmosphere can enter the pile and
the carbon dioxide and other gases emitted can be exhausted to the
atmosphere.
• To maintain aerobic conditions, in which decomposition occurs at a fast
rate, the compost pile is mechanically aerated or turned frequently to
expose the microbes to the atmosphere and to create more air spaces by
fluffing up the pile.
pH
• The pH factor affects the amount of nutrients available for the
microorganisms, the solubility of heavy metals and the overall
metabolic activity of the microorganisms.
• A pH between 6 and 8 is considered optimum, and it can be adjusted
upward by the addition of lime, or downward with sulphur, although
such additions are normally not necessary.
• The composting process itself produces carbon dioxide, which, when
combined with water, produces carbonic acid, which could lower the
pH of the compost.
Physical processes

The physical environment in the compost process includes factors such as

temperature, particle size, mixing and pile size.
Particle size: As composting progresses, there is a natural process of size
reduction and the particle size of the material being composted is critical.
• Because smaller particles usually have more surface area per unit weight, they
facilitate more microbial activity on their surfaces, which leads to rapid
decomposition.
• The optimum particle size has enough surface area for rapid microbial activity
and also enough void space to allow air to circulate for microbial respiration.
• The feedstock composition can be manipulated to create the desired mix of
particle size and void space
Temperature
• Composting can occur at a range of temperatures, and the optimum
temperature range is between 32° and 60° C. Temperatures above 65°
C are not ideal for composting as thermal destruction of cell proteins
kill the organisms.
• Similarly, temperatures below the minimum required for a group of
organisms affect the metabolic activity (i.e., regulatory machinery) of
the cells.
• Temperatures can be lowered, if required, by either increasing the
frequency of mechanical agitation or using airflow throttling,
temperature feedback control or blowers controlled with timers.
Mixing
• Mixing of feedstock, water and inoculants is important and is done by
turning or mixing the piles after composting has begun.
• Mixing and agitation distribute moisture and air evenly, and promote
the breakdown of compost clumps.
• Excessive agitation of open vessels or piles, however, can cool them
and retard microbial activity.
Stages
• There are five basic stages involved in all composting practices,
namely preparation, digestion, curing, screening or finishing, and
storage or disposal.
• However, note that differences (among various composting
processes) may occur in the method of digestion or in the amount of
preparation and the finishing required.
Preparation
• This preparation phase of composting involves several steps, and these depend upon the
sophistication of the plant and the amount of resource recovery practised.
• A typical preparation process, however, may include such activities as the sorting of recyclable
materials, the removal of non-combustibles, the shredding, pulping, grinding and the adding of
water sludge.
• Most plants utilise receiving equipment, which provides a steady flow of solid waste throughout
the operation.
• Consistency of flow is accomplished by the use of storage hoppers and regulated conveyor system.
• After the solid wastes leave the receiving area, the bulky items, which could damage the grinders,
are removed by hand.
• The separation of other non-compostable recyclable materials like glass, metal, rag, plastic, rubber
and paper may be accomplished before or after comminution (i.e., reduction to small pieces or
particles by pounding or abrading) by either hand or mechanical means.
Digestion

• Digestion techniques are the most unique feature of the various

composting processes and may vary from the backyard composting
process to the highly controlled mechanical digester. Composting
systems fall into the following two categories:
(i) windrow composting in open windrows;
(ii) mechanical composting in enclosed digestion chambers.
Curing
• Organic materials, remaining after the first (rapid) phase of composting, decompose
slowly, despite ideal environmental conditions.
• The second phase, which is usually carried out in windrows, typically takes from a
few weeks to six months, depending on the outdoor temperatures, intensity of
management and market specifications for maturity.
• With some system configurations, a screening step may precede the curing
operation.
• During curing, the compost becomes biologically stable, with microbial activity
occurring at a slower rate than that during actual composting.
• Curing piles may be either force-aerated or passiveaerated with occasional turning.
As the pile cures, the microorganisms generate less heat and the pile begins to cool.
Screening or finishing
• Compost is screened or finished to meet the market specifications. Sometimes, this
processing is done before the compost is cured.
• One or two screening steps and additional grindings are used to prepare the compost
for markets.
• During the composting operation, the compostable fraction separated from the non-
compostable fraction, through screens, undergoes a significant size reduction.
• The non-compostable fraction retained on the coarse screen is sent to the landfill,
while the compostable materials retained on finer screens may be returned to the
beginning of the composting process to allow further composting.
• The screened compost may contain inert particles such as glass or plastic that may
have passed through the screen. The amount of such inert materials depends on
feedstock before composting and the composting technology used.