Geodesy and Map Projections 2

lecture 8
 Map projections
• Attempt to portray the surface of the earth or a portion of
the earth on a flat surface.

• A mathematical model used to transform the curved earth’s

surface into a map.

•  Influences the representation of area, distance, direction,

and shape.

• Some distortions of conformality, distance, direction, scale,

and area are always expected.
 Projection ... Cont’d
• The  Theorem of Egregium (Carl Friedrich Gauss) postulated
that a sphere's surface cannot be represented on a plane
without distortion.

• Since any map projection is a representation of one of those

surfaces on a plane, all map projections distort, each
projection will distort differently.

• A map projection is any method of "flattening" into a plane a

continuous curved surface.

• A systematic transformation of latitudes and longitudes of

locations on the earth’s surface into locations on a plane.
 Medieval First projection

Ecumene (1482, Johannes Schnitzer, engraver)- based on coordinates in Ptolemy's projection

 Cartesian Coordinate system
Geographic
coordinates +2Y
Cartesian
coordinates

Cartesian
coordinates
+374X
 Projected Coordinate Systems
• Uses a rectangular or plane coordinate system
• A rectangular system is used to locate positions on a
flat map
• Has a known point of origin called a Reference Point.
• Positions on the map can be specified in terms of x
and y coordinates, usually measured in metres
• This reference system is known as Cartesian
coordinate system.
 Map Projections - Definition
• Transferring information from a 3 dimentional (3D)
spherical earth to a 2 dimentional (2D) surface e.g a
plane sheet of paper, a computer screen.

• Also defined as a mathematical transformation

 Map Projections cont’d
• Generally three ways to perform projections in GIS
– from a spherical geographic to a plane geographic system
– from a geographic to a projected coord system
– From a projected to a projected
• When a feature lacks the projection, you have to specify the
projection. In ArcGIS, this is done in the ArcTool box using the
option “Define Projection”.

• Features lack projections because their creator did not specify

them at the beginning or it may be that the features lost their
projections in the course of transfer.

• However, when a converting from a geographic to a projected or

from one projected coord system to another, in ArcGIS
ArcToolbox, use the option called “Project”.
Projection in ArcGIS-ArcMap
 Projection Parameters
• When performing map projections in GIS, the
following aspects or parameters should be
considered among others:

– The projection or projection name

– Spheroid (ellipsiod)
– Central meridian (longitude of origin where the
projection begins)
– Datum also known as the starting point of
measurement for the projection
– Units e.g meters
– Coordinate system (geographic or projected)
 Map distortions
• Map projections can be constructed to preserve at least one of these
properties, though only in a limited way for most.

• Each projection preserves or compromises or approximates basic metric

properties in different ways.

• Other considerations include compatibility with data sets to be used on the

map.

• Data sets are geographic information; their collection depends on the

chosen datum (model) of the Earth.

• Different datums use different coordinates to the same location

 Distortions Introduced by Map
Projections
• Projecting from a spherical to a flat surface is synonymous to
stretching a round object which results in “twists”, squashing or
shrinking and overstretching.
• These introduces distortions in:
– Scale
– Shape
– Size
– Area
– Distances, etc.
• Thematic maps normally require an equal area projection so
that phenomena per unit area are shown in correct proportion.[
 Datum
• Defined as a point of reference used to measure locations on
the surface of the earth. It defines the origin and orientation
of the lines of latitude and longitude.
• A datum is always related to a spheroid that simulates the
shape of the earth.
• Two types: Local and earth-centred (also called geocentric)
datum.
• A local datum is aligned so that it closely corresponds to the
earth's surface for a particular area.
• In local datum, earth’s centre does not fit the centre of the
spheroid.
• An earth-centered datum has its origin placed at the earth's
currently known center of mass.
 Datum cont’d
• In a geocentric datum, the centre & the centre of the spheroid
fits and most places on the earth’s surface aligns with the
spheroid

Possible location of
local datum
Geocentric datum
is based on
earth’s centre
 Datum cont’d
• Local datum changes with natural causes (e.g earth quakes) or
due to change in country or international mapping policies.

• Current local datum in South Africa (since January 1999) is the

Hartebeesthoek 1994 situated near Pretoria. It uses the World
Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) spheroid (universal)

• The old datum was called the Cape datum which had its origin
point at Buffelsfontein near Port Elizabeth. It used the clarke
1880 spheroid (used only by a no. of countries).

• Reason for change is due to change a universal ellipsoid for

international
 Classification of Map Projections
• There a many classifications based on several factors, two
classification types are here discussed.
1. Based on properties retained
 Equal area – preserve the area of objects, e.g. Albers’ equal
area, Lambert’s equal area
 Conformal – preserve the shape of small objects, show correct
direction, e.g. Mercator, Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
 Equidistant – preserve distances between objects and
features, e.g Azimuthal equidistant, Equidistant conic and the
Equidistant cylindrical.
 True-direction – Retains direction from one point to the other,
e.g lambert Azimuthal equal-area projection
 Classification cont’d
2. Based on the shape of the projection surface
– Conical Projection e.g Lambert conformal conic

http://www.nationalatlas.gov
 Classification cont’d
– Cylindrical Projection e.g Transverse Mercator, Universal
Transverse Mercator
– Developed for navigational purposes

Mercator Transverse
Mercator
http://www.nationalatlas.gov
 Classification cont’d
– Planar projection e.g Aitoff, Azimuthal equal area
projections

http://www.nationalatlas.gov
Comparison of map projections
 Some Projections used in South Africa
• Albers Equal Area Conic
– Projects area correctly between two latitudes (15o apart)
and a central meridian chosen by the GIS practitioner e.g
between 10o and 25oS & a central meridian 16oE

• Transverse Mercator (TM)

– Also known as Gauss Kruger Projection.
– You chose a central meridian along or near the area you
want to project. It will project areas correctly along the
central meridian and along a narrow band of 12-15o on
both sides of your central meridian.
 Some Projections cont’d
• Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
– Here, the whole world is divided into narrow
zones 6o apart within which features are projected
correctly.
– Each 3rd longitude is the central meridian for each
zone.
– Altogether 60 zones starting with zone 1 (180o-
174oW) to zone 60 (174o-180oE).
– The equator divides each zone into two halves
South and North e.g Durban is in zone 36S
 Some Projections cont’d

• Gauss Conformed System

– Also called the LO system
– LO stands for longitude of origin
– These are all the odd longitudes stretching across South
Africa from west coast to the east coast e.g 17, 19 ......33.
– It projects areas correctly along these longitudes and both
sides to the next even number meridian e.g the LO near
Cape Town is 19, hence all areas along 19 and on both
sides i.e 18 – 20 will be correctly projected.
– This projection is only used in South Africa
– It uses the Hartebeesthoek 1994 datum and the WGS84
ellipsoid
 Deciding Which Projection to use
• If the area extend horizontally over the whole country, it may
be preferable to use Albers Equal Area Conic

• If it extends elongated vertically but wide, may be use

Transverse Mercator

• If it is vertically narrower, maybe use UTM or LO system

(Gauss Conformed)

• When it comes to preserving shape, area, distance, etc see

Classification based on properties retained above.