2.

LINKAGES
• A linkage is a kinematic chain in which one of the links is fixed to the
ground which usually is the frame.
• A linkage permits relative motion between its links and may have one
or more degree of freedom.
• A linkage with zero or negative degree of freedom is a structure
which does not allow any relative motion between the links.

2.1. FOUR–BAR LINKAGE

• Fig 2.1 below shows four bar linkage
• The conventional numbering system is to label the ground or frame as
link 1, & then to number links clockwise around the mechanism “loop”

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• Link 1: is the frame or ground; generally it is stationary.
• Link 2: is the driver; may rotate or oscillate.
• Link 3: is the coupler or connecting rod and undergoes
general plane motion.
• Link 4: is the follower or driven element,
– may rotate or oscillate depending on the rotary or oscillatory motion of
link 2, and on link dimensions.
• These four bar links are joined by four revolute joints.
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• Four bar linkages are able to produce a variety of non-uniform
motion and can transmit large force.
• The links of a four-bar mechanism should be proportional in
such a way that looking is avoided.

• Position A’B’O4 shows the case of locking.

• For such a position link four can move in any of the two
directions as indicated in the figure.
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2.1.1 Transmission Angle
• The angle  between the coupler 3 and the output link 4 (follower)
is called the transmission angle.

• The equation for the transmission angle can be derived as follows.

From fig 2.3

z 2  r12  r22  2r1r2 cos 2  r32  r42  2r3r4 cos 

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• From which we obtain the transmission angle.

1
  cos 
 
r1
2
 r2
2
 r3
2
 r 2

4  2 r1r2 cos  2

(2.1)

  2r3 r4 

• In general, for good force transmission to the output link, the

transmission angle should be in the range of
40o< <140o.

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2.1.2 Motion of a Four-Bar Mechanism
• There are three basic types of motion which a four-bar linkage can
produce.
– Crank-rocker :- to indicate that link 2 rotates and link 4 oscillates;
– Double crank:- to indicate that both the driver and follower
rotate;
– Double-rocker:- to indicate that both the driver and follower
oscillate through certain angles.
• To determine whether a four-bar link will operate as one of the
above motion types, Grashoff’s law is applied which is stated as
follows:
i)
If the sum of the length of the longest and shortest links is less than
or equal to the sum of the lengths of the other two links, then
a) Two different crank rockers will be formed when the shortest link is
the crank and either of the adjacent links is the fixed link.
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 b) a double crank will be formed when the shortest link is the fixed link;
c) a double rocker will be formed when the link opposite the shortest link is
the fixed link.
ii) If the sum of the lengths of the longest and shortest links is greater than
the sum of the lengths of the other two, only a double-rocker
mechanism will be formed.
2.1.3 Variation of the Four-Bar Linkage

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2.2 SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM
• Slider-crank mechanism is basically a four-bar mechanism with
three revolute joints, or turning pairs and a prismatic joint or a
sliding pair.

• In the slider crank mechanism, commonly

- link 1 is the frame, considered to be fixed;
- link 2 is the crank which is the driver (rotating motion);
- link 3 is the connecting rod, the link b/n the driver & follower;
- link 4 is the slider which is the driven element (reciprocating)
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• The slider crank mechanism converts rotary motion into
reciprocating motion and vice-versa.
• It is commonly applied in internal combustion engines.
• During a cycle there are two dead points A’ and A” in which the
crank and the connecting rod are in line.
– at the dead positions the crank can move in either direction unless constrained
by an external force.
– In case of an engine the external constraint is provided by the remaining
cylinders and a flywheel.
2.2.1 Inversion of the Slider-Crank Mechanism
• As many inversions are obtained as the number of links in the
original mechanism
• N. B. that inversion of a mechanism does not change the relative
motion of the link, however, the absolute motion is altered.

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2.3. THE SCOTCH YOKE
• It is widely used as a sine and cosine generator, i.e. it is used to
produce harmonic motion.
• It is also used to produce desired vibration.

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• The displacement of the slider x in moving from A to A’ is
given by
x  r  r cos   r (1  cos  ) (2.2)
• Substituting  = t, the displacement is
x  r (1  cos t ) (2.3)
• The velocity and acceleration of the follower is

dx
v  r sin t  r sin  (2.4)
dt
d 2x
a  2  r 2 cos t  r 2 cos  (2.5)
d t

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2.4 QUICK-RETURN MECHANISM
• Give a quick return-stroke of the follower for a constant
angular velocity of the driver.
• The ratio of the crank angle for the working stroke to that of
the return stroke is known as the time-ratio.
• The time ratio for quick return mechanisms is always greater
than unity to give a slower cutting stroke and a faster return
stroke.

angle of cutting stroke

time ratio  1
angle of return stroke

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2.4.1 Crank-Shaper Mechanism
• The figure below shows schematic
representation of six-bar crank-shaper
mechanism.
• Links 1-4 of this mechanism form a
variation of the slider-crank mechanism in
which the crank is held fixed.
• For the direction of motion indicated in
the figure,
– the cutting stroke occures when the crank
rotates from O2A’ to O2A” through angle
,
– the idle stroke being when the crank
moves from O2A” to O2A’ through the
angle .

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• For constant angular speed of the crank, the time ratio Q is given by
time of cutting stroke tw
Q  (2.6)
time of return stroke t r
• And for constant angular velocity 2 of link 2,


Q (2.7)

where  = 2tw and  = 2tr
• Length of stroke of the tool holder C is given by

length of stroke  BB

 2BD
 
 2O 4 Bsin - 90 
2 
O2A
 length of stroke  2O 4 B (2.8)
O 2O 4
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2.4.2 Drag Link
–Developed by connecting two four bar linkages in series.
–For a constant angular velocity of link 2, link 4 will rotate at a non-uniform
velocity.
–time ratio Q is: 
Q


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2.4.3 Whitworth Mechanism
• Another variation of the slider crank mechanism in which the crank
is held fixed
• Commonly used in shaping and slotting machines
• Time ratio Q is:

Q


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2.5 Toggle Mechanisms
• Simple toggle consists of two links which tend to line-up in a straight line at
one point in their motion.
• The mechanical advantage of the simple toggle above is the velocity ratio of
the input point A to the output point B

FB x v
• Mechanical advantage =   tan    A
FA y vB

• As α => 90o, CA & AB come in to toggle

• Used in punch presses, riveting machines, stone crusher, etc
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2.5.1 Stone Crusher
• The stone crusher shown uses two toggle
linkages in series
=> high mechanical advantage.
• When links 2 and 3 are in toggle, links 4
& 5 are also in toggle
=> produce high crushing force needed.

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2.6. Straight Line Mechanism
• These are mechanisms which can generate straight lines from rotary
motion.
• Point on one of the links moves in a straight line with out the need of
guides.
 Converts rotary motion into straight line motion.

2.6.1 Watt mechanism

 Produces an approximate straight line motion
 For equal lengths of links 2 & 4, the tracing point P traces an approximate
straight line.

 This will happen if AP/PB = O4B/O2A.

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2.7. Parallel Mechanism
• Used to produce parallel motions & reproducing motions at different scale.
• Common examples
– Pantograph
– Drafting machine

2.7.1. The Pantograph

Used to enlarge or reduce trajectories to different scales.
 Commonly used in cutting tools to duplicate complicated shapes to desired
scales.
 Links 2, 3, 4, & 5 form a parallelogram
 Link 3 is extended to contain point C and point E lies on the intersection of
lines O2C and DB.

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 A pen attached at E reproduces the movement of C to a reduced scale and
vise versa i.e. the motion of E is parallel to that of C.
 To produce this parallel motion the necessary condition to be satisfied
for all positions of C is

O2C
 const.
O2 E

=>for any position of C, triangle O2DE is similar to triangle CBE.

=> O2 E O2 D
  const.
EC CB

 The ratio of the sizes of the figures at C and E is

size of figure at C O2C

size of figure at E O2 E
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• Another example of parallel mechanism is found in drafting
machine.

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2.8. INTERMITTENT MOTION
MECHANISM
• Converts continuous motion into intermittent
motion.
• Common examples are the Geneva wheel &
ratchet mechanism.
2.8.1. Geneva Mechanism.
• Provides intermittent rotary motion.
• During one cycle of the crank, the Geneva
wheel rotates through fraction part of a
revolution.
• The circular segment attached to the crank locks
the wheel against rotation when the roller is not
engaged.
• Angle  is half the angle subtended by adjacent
slots.360

2n
• where n=number of slots.
• Let r2=the crank
r radius, the center distance C is:
C 2 25
sin 
• Locking-slid Geneva

• Ratchet Mechanism
– Used to produce intermittent circular motion from an oscillating or
reciprocating member and/or to allow rotational motion in one
direction alone.

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2.9. STEERING GEAR MECHANISM
• Used to change the direction of the wheel axle with respect to the chassis
which enables motion of an automobile in any desired direction.

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• To avoid skidding or slipping of the wheels sideways, the front two
wheels must turn about the same instantaneous center C which lies
on the axis of the back wheels.
– This avoids undue wear in the tires.
– This is also the condition for correct steering
– this will be satisfied if  > . Where:  is inner wheel turning angle  is
outer wheel turning angle.
• the condition to be satisfied is obtained as follows.
BO x
Cot  
OC b
AO x  a
Cot  
OC b
And the condition for correct steering is obtained to be
a
Cot  Cot 
b
this is the fundamental equation for correct steering which, if
satisfied, eliminates skidding of the front wheel.
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2.9.1 Ackerman Steering Gear
 Consists of a four bar mechanism joined by revolute joints.
 The shorter links QR and PS are of equal length and are connected
to the front wheel axles by hinge joints.
 Links PQ and RS are of unequal length.

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