CHAPTER --TWO

CAST IRONS
Generically, cast irons are a class of ferrous
alloys with carbon contents above 2.14 wt%.
Most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5
wt% C and other alloying elements.
Alloys of cast iron becomes completely liquid
at temperatures between approximately
1150 and 1300oC (2100 and 2350oF), which is
considerably lower than for steels.
 Cast irons are easily melted and
amenable/comfortable to casting (can be easily
prepared by casting process).
 Some cast irons are very brittle.
 Casting is the most convenient fabrication
technique.
 Cementite (Fe3C) is a metastable compound, and
under some circumstances it can be made to
dissociate or decompose to form ferrite and
graphite, according to the reaction
 Cont....
• Thus, the true equilibrium diagram for iron and carbon is
not that presented in Figure 10.26, but rather as shown in
Figure 13.2. The two diagrams are virtually identical on the
iron-rich side (e.g., eutectic and eutectoid temperatures for
the Fe–Fe3C system are 1147 and 727oC, respectively, as
compared to 1153 and 740oC for Fe–C); however, Figure
13.2 extends to 100 wt% carbon such that graphite is the
carbon-rich phase, instead of cementite at 6.7 wt% C
(Figure 10.26).
• This tendency to form graphite is regulated by the
composition and rate of cooling. Graphite formation is
promoted by the presence of silicon in concentrations
greater than about 1 wt%. Also, slower cooling rates during
solidification favour graphitization (the formation of
graphite).
FIGURE 13.2 The true equilibrium iron–carbon phase diagram with
graphite instead of cementite as a stable phase.
 Production of cast iron
 Raw materials used for production of cast iron
are Pig iron, scrap steel, limestone and carbon
(coke).
 Machines used in preparing cast iron are:
 Cupola
 Electric arc furnace
 Electric induction furnace
 Usually sand cast, but can be gravity die cast in
reusable graphite moulds Not formed but finished
by machining 5
 Microstructure and mechanical behaviour
depend on composition and heat treatment.
 The most common cast iron types are gray,
nodular, white, and malleable.
 1) Gray cast Iron

 The carbon content of gray cast irons vary

between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and silicon between
1.0 and 3.0 wt%.
 For most gray cast irons, the graphite exists in
the form of flakes (similar to corn flakes), which
are normally surrounded by an α-ferrite or
pearlite matrix; the microstructure of a typical
gray iron is shown in Figure 13.3a.
 Because of these graphite flakes, a fractured
surface takes on a gray appearance.
• Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak and brittle in
tension as a consequence of its microstructure;
• The tips of the graphite flakes are sharp and pointed, and may
serve as points of stress concentration when an external
tensile stress is applied.

• Strength and ductility are much higher under compressive

loads. Typical mechanical properties and compositions of
several of the common gray cast irons are listed in Table 13.5.
Gray irons do have some desirable characteristics and, in fact,
are utilized extensively.

• They are very effective in damping vibrational energy; this is

represented in Figure 13.4, which compares the relative
damping capacities of steel and gray iron.
 Conti.....
• Base structures for machines and heavy equipment that
are exposed to vibrations are frequently constructed of
this material.

• In addition, gray irons exhibit a high resistance to wear.

• In the molten state they have a high fluidity at casting
temperature, which permits casting pieces having
intricate shapes; also,
• Have low casting shrinkage.

• In terms of cost, gray cast irons are least expensive of

all metallic materials
 Cont........
• Gray irons having microstructures different from that
shown in Figure 13.3a may be generated by adjustment of
composition and/or by using an appropriate treatment.

• For example, lowering the silicon content or increasing the

cooling rate may prevent the complete dissociation of
cementite to form graphite.

• Under these circumstances the microstructure consists of

graphite flakes embedded in a pearlite matrix. Figure 13.5
compares schematically the several cast iron
microstructures obtained by varying the composition and
heat treatment.
 2) Ductile (Nodular) Iron

• Ductile(nodular) cast iron can be formed by adding a small

amount of magnesium or cerium to the gray cast iron before
casting produces a distinctly different microstructure and set of
mechanical properties.

• Graphite exists in the form of nodules or sphere like particles

instead of flakes.
• The resulting alloy is called nodular or ductile iron, and a typical
microstructure is shown in Figure 13.3b.

• The matrix phase surrounding these particles is either pearlite or

ferrite, depending on heat treatment (Figure 13.5); it is normally
pearlite for an as cast piece. However, a heat treatment for several
hours at about 700oC (1300oF) will yield a ferrite matrix as in this
photomicrograph.
• Are stronger and much more ductile than gray iron, as a
comparison of their mechanical properties in Table 13.5
shows.
• Have a mechanical characteristics approaching (almost
similar) with those of steel.

• Have tensile strengths ranging between 380 and 480

MPa (55,000 and 70,000 psi), and ductilities (as percent
elongation) from 10 to 20%.

• Typical applications for this material include valves,

pump bodies, crankshafts, gears, and other automotive
and machine components.
 3) White Iron and Malleable Iron
• Are low-silicon cast irons (containing less than 1.0 wt%
Si) and have a rapid cooling rates, most of the carbon
exists as cementite instead of graphite, as indicated in
Figure 13.5.

• A fracture surface of this alloy has a white appearance,

and thus it is termed white cast iron. An optical
photomicrograph showing the microstructure of white
iron is presented in Figure 13.3c.
• Thick sections may have only a surface layer of white
iron that was ‘‘chilled’’ during the casting process; gray
iron forms at interior regions, which cool more slowly.
• As a consequence of large amounts of the
cementite phase, white iron is extremely hard
but also very brittle, to the point of being
virtually unmachinable.
• Its use is limited to applications that necessitate
a very hard and wear-resistant surface, and
without a high degree of ductility for example,
as rollers in rolling mills.
• Generally, white iron is used as an intermediary
in the production of yet another cast iron,
malleable iron.
• Heating white iron at temperatures between 800
and 900oC (1470 and 1650oF) for a prolonged
time period and in a neutral atmosphere (to
prevent oxidation) causes a decomposition of
the cementite, forming graphite, which exists in
the form of clusters or rosettes surrounded by a
ferrite or pearlite matrix, depending on cooling
rate, as indicated in Figure 13.5.
 Cont......
• The microstructure is similar to that for nodular
iron (Figure 13.3b), which accounts for relatively
high strength and appreciable ductility or
malleability. Some typical mechanical
characteristics are also listed in Table 13.5.

• Representative applications include connecting

rods, transmission gears, and differential cases
for the automotive industry, and also flanges,
pipe fittings, and valve parts for railroad,
marine, and other heavy-duty services.
Table 13.5 Designations, Minimum Mechanical Properties, Approximate Compositions,
and Typical Applications for Various Gray, Nodular, and Malleable Cast Irons
FIGURE 13.3 Optical photomicrographs of various cast irons. (a) Gray iron: the
dark graphite flakes are embedded in an α-ferrite matrix. (b) Nodular (ductile) iron: the dark
graphite nodules are surrounded by an α-ferrite matrix. (c) White iron: the light cementite
regions are surrounded by pearlite, which has the ferrite–cementite layered structure. (d)
Malleable iron: dark graphite rosettes (temper carbon) in an α-ferrite matrix.
FIGURE 13.4 Comparison of the relative
vibrational damping capacities of (a) steel
and (b) gray cast iron
FIGURE 13.5 From the iron–carbon phase diagram, composition ranges for
commercial cast irons. Also shown are microstructures that result from a variety of
heat treatments. Gf , flake graphite; Gr , graphite rosettes; Gn , graphite nodules; P,
pearlite; α, ferrite.