9 Domains of Development

1. Physical-Maturational
2.  Cognitive-Intellectual
3. Artistic-Creative
4. Linguistic-Communicative
5. Knowledge-Skill
6. Social-Interpersonal
7. Moral-Ethical
8. Personality-Individuality
9. Emotional-Affective
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Theorists Connected with Each of the
9 Domains of Development
1.  Physical-Maturational (Gesell)
2.  Cognitive-Intellectual (Piaget, Damon)
3. Social-Interpersonal (Youniss, Selman, Damon)
4. Moral-Ethical (Piaget, Kohlberg, Kagan,
Hoffman, Damon)
5. Knowledge-Skill (Vygotsky, Damon)
6. Linguistic (Chomsky)
7. Artistic-Creative (Lowenfeld, Gardner)
8. Personality-Individuality (Freud, Erikson, Dowlby,
Ainsworth)
9. Emotional-Affective (Hoffman, Kagan)
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Descriptors of These Theorists’ Models
1. Psychosexual Personality Development (Freud)
2. Psychosocial Personality Development (Erikson)
3. Developmental Tasks as Developmental Milestones (Havighurst)
4. Cognitive Development (Piaget)
5. Moral Reasoning Development (Kohlberg, Piaget, Havighurst)
6. Moral Emotion Development (Hoffman, Kagan)
7. Social-Conceptual Development (Damon, Selman, Youniss)
8. Scaffolded Knowledge and Skill Development (Vygotsky, Damon)
9. Ecological-Social Development (Bronfenbrenner)
10. Maturational-Biological Milestones (Gesell)
11. Ethological Personality-by-Attachment (Bowlby, Ainsworth)

Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Some Developmental Mechanisms
• Maturation (genetic program for growth)

• Imitation (essential for learning)

• Practice (essential for consolidation)

• Habituation (promotes novel exploration)

Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Three issues addressed by developmental
theorists
• Continuity or Discontinuity of Growth
Can development be characterized as a gradual change
process, or does it present sudden, distinct bursts of
change?
• The Influence of Maturation Versus Experience
Is development primarily influenced by biologically
inherited, genetic factors, or by environmental
experiences (nature or nurture)?
• Individual Differences
What makes individuals different?
To what extent are individual characteristics stable over
time?

Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 ADULTHOOD
ADULTHOOD

INFANCY

CONTINUOUS
DISCONTINUOUS

Some theories view development as a relatively

continuous process. In contrast, stage theories
assume that development is discontinuous and
involves periodic qualitative milestone changes.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Piaget’s Stages of
Cognitive Development
Description of Stage Developmental
Age Range Phenomena
Sensorimotor
Birth to nearly Experiencing the world through the • Object permanence
2 years of age senses and exploration (looking, • Stranger anxiety
hearing, touching, mouthing, etc.)

Preoperational • Pretend play

About 2 to 6 Representing things with words • Egocentrism
years of age and images but have no logical • Rapid language
reasoning abilities development
Concrete operational
About 7 to 11 Thinking logically about concrete • Conservation
years of age events; grasping concrete analogies • Mathematical
and performing math operations transformations

About 12 years Formal operational • Abstract logic

of age through Abstract reasoning; reflection; • Potential for moral
adulthood thinking about thinking reasoning
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 The child begins to The child begins to
interact with the represent the world
environment symbolically.

Sensorimotor Stage Preoperational Stage

Concrete Operational Formal Operational

Children learn rules such

as game rules and the law The adolescent can transcend
of conservation, and they concrete situations and think about
take them very seriously the future and their own thinking
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Formal
Concrete Operational
Operational Mental
Pre-
Mental operations are
Operational
Sensorimotor operations are applied to
Early symbolic applied to abstract ideas;
Coordination of
thought concrete begin logical,
sensory input
marked by events only; systematic
and motor
responses; irreversibility, mastery of thinking;
development of concentration, conservation imagine
object & egocentrism; and hypothetical
permanence; assume you hierarchical events;
begin to know what they classification; manipulate
explore know; cannot cannot think symbols in
environment decenter abstractly their minds

Birth to 2 Years 2 to 7 Years 7 to 11 Years 12 to adult

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development identifies

four stages marked by qualitatively different modes
of thinking. Interaction with the environment and
maturation gradually alter the way children think.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Types of
Games
Pre-Cooperative Cooperative
and Play Immature Cooperative Mature Cooperative
Parallel Egocentric
Game Rule A casual attitude Rules are viewed as sacred, Rules are viewed as a
toward game rules; few obligatory, product of mutual
Practice
rules are understood; unchangeable; game rules consent; game rules are
and
Consciousness games ignored are vaguely understood codified and of intense
Heteronomy: morality of constraint; imposed Autonomy: morality of cooperation;interest
cooperation
Basic Morality constraints maintain egocentrism; constraints and reciprocity emerge from relationships among
Is Respect are a necessary precondition for the peer equals that deliver them from egocentrism to
for Rules development of moral autonomy moral autonomy and a mature sense of justice

Justice is what is Equalitarianism Equity

Sense of commanded by authority: Born of solidarity & mutual Consider intentions &
Justice Heteronomy respect among equals situation when judging

Pre-Operational Concrete Operational Formal Operational

Thinking Take the perspective of Can think logically and
Capacity Can't take the perspective of others; can't think others; conceptual but not abstractly; can consider
about their own thinking abstract reasoning many viewpoints

Concept of Objective sense of responsibility: acts Subjective sense of responsibility: acts evaluated in
evaluated in terms of material consequences; terms of motives/intentions; acts judged immoral if
Responsibility they violate norm of reciprocity central to moral rules
evaluations based on observable factors
Affection between parent and child yields
Morality
morality of good; develops along side the No further explanation
of Good morality of justice
Feeling of obligation to follow rules emerging from cooperation
Feeling of obligation to follow rules of respected and respect among equals (reflects valuing of reciprocity);
Moral authority; raw material for future autonomous "moral sentiments and motivation" to do right reflect the
Affect moral behavior is present in sympathetic subordination of early "sympathetic tendencies" and "affective
reactions" to rules; "will" is the permanent set of constructed
tendencies and affective reactions "values" to which one one adheres

Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©

Robert Havighurst’s “Developmental
Task Theory”
Click Here

He also introduced the concepts of “teachable

moment,” “authoritarian conscience,” and “rational
conscience,” concepts similar to those of Piaget.

The idea of "developmental tasks" is appropriately credited to Robert

Havighurst who stated that the concept was developed in the 1930s and
40s by Frank, Zachry, Prescott, and Tyron. He further stated, “The
developmental-task concept occupies a middle ground between two
opposing theories of education: the theory of freedom — that the child will
develop best if left as free as possible; and the theory of constraint — that
the child must learn to become a worthy, responsible adult through
restraints imposed by his society [inculcation]. A developmental task is
midway between an individual need and a societal demand. It assumes
an active learner interacting with an active social environment.” Tasks for
three of the developmental stages are presented on the next three slides.
Drawn from the description of Havighurst’s book in Developmental Advising: Annotated Bibliography for Research Published Prior to 1999, an annotated bibliography
compiled by G. Steele and Melinda McDonald for the NACADA Journal. Retrieved from http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Journal/developmental.htm The book is Havighurst, R.
J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay.

Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 Developmental Tasks of Middle Childhood:
Ages 6-12
1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games;
2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing
organism;
3. Learning to get along with age-mates;
4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role;
5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and
calculating;
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living;
7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values;
8. Achieving personal independence;
9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions.
  Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay.

Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 
Developmental Tasks of Adolescence
Ages 12-18
1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates
of both sexes;
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role;
3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively;
4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other
adults;
5. Preparing for marriage and family life;
6. Preparing for an economic career;
7. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide
to behavior; developing an ideology;
8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.
Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay.

Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 Developmental Tasks of
Early Adulthood
1. Selecting a mate;
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role;
3. Learning to live with a marriage partner;
4. Starting a family;
5. Rearing children;
6. Managing a home;
7. Getting started in an occupation;
8. Taking on civic responsibility;
9. Finding a congenial social group.

.
Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay

Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 16 of 25 consonant sounds
Early Language by 30 months
Development

See cat!
Telegraphic
means lacking
connection words

Grpmph
!

Cat! said with

gestures;
serves as whole
sentence

9-12 months is the quiet

Gradual narrowing of sounds to period since there is a
decrease in vocalization
meaningful phonemes of the
language being learned
Epigenetic principle: genetically determined unfolding of maturation; HOW
we turn out is a function of social/environmental forces
and experience in interaction with genotype.
Erikson, E.H. (1950). Childhood and Society. New
York:Norton. Erikson, E.H. (1964). Insight and
Responsibility. NewYork: Norton. To learn more about
Erikson, begin here:
http://elvers.stjoe.udayton.edu/history/people/Erikson.html Integrity
Generativity versus
Intimacy versus Despair
Identity versus Absorption
Industry versus Isolation Have I
Initiative versus Role lived
Autonomy versus Inferiority Confusion Shall I Will I
a full
Trust versus Guilt share my produce
life and
versus Shame Am I Who am I life with something
of real taken
Mistrust & Doubt Am I Competent and another advantage
Good or am I a where or live value
Can I do or leave of what
Is my world or am worthless am I alone? life
Predictable things myself a legacy?
or must I I Bad? failure? going? offered?
and depend
Supportive? on others?

Infancy Early Late Young

Babies Toddlerhood Childhood Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Middle Age Late Adult

Erikson’s theory of personality development proposes that people

move through eight stages during their lives. Each stage brings a
psychosocial crisis or conflict that needs to be resolved interactively.
Each involves confronting a question such as, “Who am I and where
am I going?” The stages are described above in terms of personality
traits that are potential outcomes from handling these crises.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004
 Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial-Developmental Crises
(Stages) of Personality Formation Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004 ©

Developmental Psychosocial Significant Important Healthful Problematic

Stages and Age Crisis Relations Events Virtues
Ranges or Conflict Traits
Oral-Sensory Trust Hope Faith Sensory
Birth to 12-18 vs Mother Feeding Distortion
Months Mistrust Withdrawal
Muscular-Anal Autonomy Toilet Impulsivity
vs Shame/Doubt Will
18 Months to 3 Parents Training
Compulsivity
Years of Age Independence Self-Doubt
Locomotion Initiative Purpose Courage Cruelty
Exploration
3 to 6 Years vs Family Imagining Inhibition Fear
of Age Guilt Doing Things of Failure
Latency 6 Industry Neighbor & School Making Competence Inferiority Lack
to 12 Years of vs School Children Things Well Skill, Pride of Self-
Age Inferiority Conscience Confidence
Adolescence 12 Identity Peer Cliques Consolidation of Fidelity Fanaticism
to 18 Years of vs Role Girl/Boy Friend Roles
Age Confusion Role Models Identifications Loyalty Repudiation
Young Adult Intimacy Friends & Committed Love Trust Promiscuity
19 to 29 Years vs Life Partners
Isolation Relationships Exclusivity
of Age
Middle Age 30 Generativity vs Household Supporting Next Caring Over- Extension
to 55 Years of Self-Absorption Members & Generation Rejecting
Age Work Mates Altruism
Old Age 56 Integrity Mankind or Physical Decline Presumption
to 100 Years of vs “My- Death Wisdom
Age Despair kind” Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2000
Despair
 Erikson’s Psychosocial
Development Continued

Early Attachment
• Erikson proposes that our first major
conflict is encountered in the first year
Trust vs. Mistrust

• Infants develop trust through

Social Attachment (see Attachment Theory)
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Erikson’s Psychosocial
Development Continued
• In the second year of development the
child encounters the conflict of . . .
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

• The child explores the environment

and seeks the independence to do so.

• Parents who stifle their children during

this stage cause feelings of shame and
doubt.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Erikson’s Psychosocial
Development Continued
• In the third year of development, the
child faces the conflict of . . .
Initiative vs. Guilt

• The child starts to show initiative in play

and control over emotions.

• The child also begins to gain a sense of

what is right and wrong based on their
experiences.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Erikson’s Psychosocial
Development Continued

• From ages 6 through 12, the child

faces the conflict over
Industry vs Inferiority
• Industrious children build a sense
of competence and self-confidence.
• Non-industrious children begin to
develop inferiority complexes.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
(Scaffolded Knowledge/Skill Acquisition)
• Children’s cognitive development is heavily influenced
by social and cultural factors via relationships.
• Children’s thinking develops through dialogues with
more capable people, usually parents and teachers.
• The Zone of Proximal Development is the range of
tasks a child cannot master alone. Even though they
may be close to having the necessary mental skills,
they need guidance in order to complete the tasks.
• Scaffolding is a framework of temporary support.
Adults help children learn how to think by scaffolding
or by supporting their attempts to solve problems and
discover principles. Scaffolding must be responsive to
children’s needs.

Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Vygotsky’s Theory of Development
• Zone of Proximal Development encompasses the
range of tasks that are too difficult for children to
master alone but within their capacity to learn with
guidance and assistance from adults or more skilled
children.
• Scaffolding involves changing the level of support
over the course of teaching something — the more
skilled person/teacher adjusts the amount of guidance
to fit students’ current performance level.
• Language and Thought: young children use
language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in
a self-regulatory fashion – Vygotsky called this “inner
speech” or private speech.
Primary Source: Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press. Another source: Vygotsky, L. S. (1989).  Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. To learn more, begin with Clifford
Morris’s information at http://www.igs.net/~cmorris/zpd.html entitled Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development 1..
Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 It is important to
study human development
in it’s broader social-environmental
context because the structure of
the environment influences
development.

Ecological Theories
of Human Development

Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
5
Environmental Systems:
microsystem: setting where individual lives
mesosystem: interrelations among microsystems
comprising the local community
exosystem: experiences in the larger social
system or society of which the microsystem
and mesosystem are parts
macrosystem: the individual’s culture
chronosystem: environmental events and
transitions over time
One PPT source retrieved at http://www.ualberta.ca/~liame/106b1/notes7.ppt#20 – no author identified.

Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Changes in
CHRONOSYSTEM
systems
MACROSYSTEM over time
Op
St por
EXOSYSTEM ru tu
n M ct nit
l i gio as ur ie
ce s

Me s SOCIETY
Re es s
oi yle

dia
s

MESOSYSTEM
Ch e St

AT LARGE
s

l P
re

o G eer
f

o
Li

ltu

Le tem
Sy
h ro
Sc up
cu

ga
s
ub

MICROSYSTEM

l
Where the
S

Cultural Norms
Educational

Government
individual lives

Agencies
Peer
Home
System

School
Traditions

Group
INDIVIDUAL
Home Church

ch
r
Interrelations

Chu
W Neighborhood
Co or
plk Workplace io
n among
n mm ac t
Te u rta s microsystems

e ial
e od
Li Opt

ch ni o o

ng oc
h
c hbor sp tem
fe io

no a i g

ha S
l o tio Ne n
a ys
Co ns

rc of
gy Tr S
ur

te s
In ern
se

Commerce and
tt
Pa

Industry
Dominant Beliefs and
CULTURE
Ideologies

Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 BIOLOGICAL-
MATURATIONAL THEORIES
Frontal
Amniotic Lobes
Sac
Egg
Placenta

Sperm
Cells Umbilical
Eye
Cord

Liver

Prenatal Development

Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 Biological-Maturational
Theories of Development

 Emphasize the genetic, biological, and

evolutionary basis of human development.
 The central concept is maturation — a
genetically predetermined sequence of physical
and psychophysiological changes. These
changes take place at about the
same age for most people.
 The environment has a significant influence
on when changes occur and the degree of
growth that takes place.

Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 Affection for children

Affection for adults

Elation Joy

Delight

Excitement

Distress

Anger Jealousy

Disgust

Fear

Months 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
Emotions are rapidly differentiated from an initial capacity for excitement
(K.M.B. Bridges, 1932). Today, there is great interest in genetically determined
temperamental characteristics from which personality forms, such as sociability .
K. M. B. Bridges, (1932). Emotional development in early infancy. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 37. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Temperament
• The biological-genetic basis for the self-expressive, arousal, and self-
regulatory components of personality. These are evident in infancy in
the forms of activity level, irritability, fearfulness, sociability, etc.
• In 1977 Thomas & Chess stated that childhood temperamental
characteristics are relatively innate and well-established by 2-3 months
of age. They identified tree types of temperament evident in infancy:
• Easy ─ high approach response; positive mood (mild to
moderate intensity); quick adaptability;
• Difficult ─ high withdrawal response; frequent negative
mood of high intensity; slow adaptability;
• Slow-to-warm-up ─ many withdrawal responses ( mild to
moderate intensity); slow adaptability.
Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel

• In 1984 Buss & Plomin proposed the following criteria for

temperament:
Inherited,
present early in development,
predictive of later personality development.
Buss, A., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early personality traits. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. Side by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Maturation does not
take place in a vacuum.
There are critical periods during
which children must have certain types
of experiences in order for perceptual and
cognitive abilities to develop normally, thus
confirming the “use it or lose it” saying.
For example, in order to develop correct binocular
depth perception, the eyes must receive sensory input
between age one and three years.
A child who was kept in confinement by her
parents until the age of thirteen without
being spoken to never acquired
spoken language beyond two
or three word phrases.

Written and arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development
The mother’s behavior can harm her fetus in in several ways:
• Severely inadequate nutrition
– Risk of complications during delivery and neurological problems
– Increased risk of mental disorders later in life
• Drug use
– Fetal alcohol syndrome is a congenital set of physical and mental problems
caused by alcohol use during pregnancy. This set includes microcephaly
(small head), heart defects, hyperactivity, mental retardation, motor
abnormalities, abnormal facial features.
– The affects of social drinking during pregnancy include deficient intelligence, a
slow reaction time, weak motor skills, inattention, impulsivity, and poor social
skills.
– Tobacco, alcohol, and drugs, both prescription and recreational, are also linked
to birth defects.
• Viral Illnesses
– Viruses can affect prenatal development with the amount of damage depending
on (a) when during pregnancy the mother becomes ill, (b) the type of illness,
and (c) the medications taken.
– Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, and severe influenza can cause
extreme abnormalities or death.
Slide prepared by Gordon Vessels. Primary sources: Gurnee, Mary C. and Sylvestri, Mario F. (2005). Teratogenicity of Drugs, accessed at U.S. Pharmacist, a Johnson
Publication at http://www.uspharmacist.com/oldformat.asp?url=newlook/files/Feat/ACF3001.cfm&pub_id=8&article_id=134; The Ohio State University Medical Center (2005).
Risks during pregnancy, a public service document accessed at http://medicalcenter.osu.edu/patientcare/healthinformation/diseasesandconditions/maternity/care/risks.cfm
 Attachment Theory
Mary Ainsworth John Bowlby

• Postulate: the human infant is pre-adapted to

respond to it’s caregiver.
• Evolutionary function: attachment behaviors
promote close proximity to the caregiver so that
the child can be protected from danger.
• Type of attachment is influenced by care-
giving behavior; children can be categorized as:
– Secure
– Ambivalent (seek comfort but show
anger or resistance)
– Avoidant
– Insecure-disorganized
Primary source: Werner-Wilson, Ronald J. (2005). Types of attachment, a PPT slide show retrieved from
http://www.public.iastate.edu/~hd_fs.511/lecture/Types_of_Attachment.ppt Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Researching Attachment: Strange Situation Test
The Strange Situation Test involves separatingThe infant is put through eight standardized
the very young child (toddler) from episodes or situations, all meant to elicit
its mother or primary caregiver differing levels of distress. These include
and then reuniting the an experimenter entering the room, one or
child with the both leaving, and a stranger entering either
parent. with or without the parent
in the room. Based on the infant’s
reaction to these situations, his
or her type of attachment
with the mother or
is identified.

From Messer, D. and Miller, S. (1999). Exploring Developmental Psychology. Copy

of photo found at http://ibs.derby.ac.uk/~steve/devpsy/powerpoint/lec7social.ppt#7

This is carried out under controlled and

monitored conditions and involves carefully
recording the child’s reactions and the parent’s
behavior. It was developed by Mary Ainsworth who
extended the earlier groundbreaking work of John Bowlby.
Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the
Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Infant reunion responses following their
separation
from their mothers:
• Secure (B type) behavior
– positive, greeting of mother, being
comforted
• Avoidant (A type) behavior
– not seeking contact, avoiding
gaze
• Ambivalent (C type) behavior
– not comforted, overly passive,
show anger
• Disorganised (D type) Behavior
– totally disorganised and confused

Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Mothers of ambivalent infants tend to be
inconsistent, insensitive, and unpredictable in their
interactions with their babies.
The mothers of insecure-avoidant babies tend to
be averse to physical contact, are inclined to
interfere unnecessarily, and generally appear
emotionally unavailable or dismissive.
The mothers of insecure-disorganized infants are
typically suffering from an unresolved trauma,
such as abuse or the unresolved loss of an
attachment figure, which results in their babies
being afraid of them. The mother may actually be
abusive or neglectful. Click to Learn More

Source: Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1982). Attachment: retrospect and prospect. In C.M. Parkes and J. Stevenson-Hinde, (Eds.) The Place of Attachment in
Human Behavior. (pp 3-30) New York: Basic Books. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005.
 Correspondence Between Child & Adult
Attachment Styles
CHILD ATTACHMENT STYLE PARENT ATTACHMENT STYLE

SECURE/AUTONOMOUS: developmentally
SECURE: Limited distress,
appropriate interaction; recognizes
continued exploration after initial reunion
significance of attachment.

DISMISSING: dismissive about attachment;

AVOIDANT: child appears
withdrawn and
indifferent
rejecting

RESISTANT OR AMBIVALENT: PREOCCUPIED: recognizes significance of

child appears distressed and is preoccupied with attachment but is preoccupied with past and
caregiver and clingish appears angry; blurred or unclear boundaries

UNRESOLVED/DISORGANIZED: frightened by
DISORGANIZED/DISORIENTED: difficult to memory of past;
categorize reunion with caregiver; describes 80% trauma promotes momentary disassociation;
of maltreated children. scripts child into
past dramas

Primary source: Werner-Wilson, Ronald J. (2005). Types of attachment, a PPT slide show retrieved from
http://www.public.iastate.edu/~hd_fs.511/lecture/Types of_Attachment.ppt Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Ambivalent Unclassified
5%
10%

22% 63%

Avoidant Secure
In the United States, about two thirds of all children
from middle-class families are securely attached.
About one child in three is insecurely attached.

Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 Bowlby’s Attachment Stages
• Birth to 2-3 months
– Undiscriminating social responsivenss
• 2-3 months to 6-7 months
– Discriminating social responsiveness
• 6-7 months to 3 years
– Active proximity seeking /true
attachment
• 3 years and older
– Goal-corrected partnership
Sources: Bowlby, John. (1982). Attachment and Loss. Vol. 1. NY: Basic Books; list presented in this slide also listed in slide #5 created at the
University of Idaho, retrieved at http://www.class.uidaho.edu/psych/faculty/Tammy/Tammy's%20305%20Notes/socialrelationships.ppt#5.

Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 Separation Distress: Another
Indicator of Attachment

100
Percentage of infants who cried
when their mothers left

80
Day-care

60

Groups of infants
40 who had and had not
experienced day-
Home
20 care were left by
their mothers in an
0 unfamiliar room.
0.0 3.5 5.5 7.5 9.5 11.5 13.5 15.5 17.5 19.5 21.5 23.5 25.5 29
Age in months
Gordon Vessels’ 2005 recreation of graph in a PPT show by Mahnaz Rehmatullah at http://www.uta.edu/psychology/faculty/mahnaz/classnotes/1315/Ch04_Developing%20Person.ppt#34ed. He
took it from Kagan, Jerome (1976), The role of the family during the first half decade. In V. Vaughn& T. Brazelton (Eds.), The family:Can it be saved? Chicago: Yearbook Medical Publishers.
 Attachment Theory Research Findings
• Main & Cassidy (1988) ─ Kindergarten children’s self-esteem was found to be related to
secure attachment. Main, M., & Cassidy, J. (1988). Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predictable from infant attachment
classifications and stable over a 1-month period. Developmental Psychology, 24, 415-426.

• Lamb et al., (1984) ─ They found the link between attachment style and social-emotional
adjustment was only there if family circumstances remained stable.
Lamb, M. E., Thompson, R. A., Gardner, W. P., Charnov, E. L, & Estes, D. (1984). Security of infantile attachment as assessed in the "strange situation": Its study and
biological interpretation. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7, 127-171.

• Frankel & Cates (1990) ─ They found that securely attached infants became better problem
solvers than insecurely attached infants.
• Crandell & Hobson (1999) ─ They compared 20 secure and 16 insecure mothers and their
kids who were all three years old; the children of secure mothers scored 19 points higher
on an IQ test; the degree of parent-child “synchrony” was also related to the children’s IQs.
Crandell, L.E. and Hobson, R.P. (1999). Individual Differences in Young Children's IQ: A Social-developmental Perspective, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and
Allied Disciplines, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 455-464(10). Publisher: Blackwell Publishing

• Park & Waters (1989) ─ They found that securely attached children coordinate their
activities with friends more harmoniously than others.
Park, K. A., & Waters, E. (1989). Security of attachment and preschool friendships. Child Development, 60, 1076-1081.

• Meins & Russell (1997) ─ They found greater social responsiveness and flexibility for
securely attached children age two and one-half years. Meins, E, & Russell, J (1997). Security and symbolic play: the
relation between security of attachment and executive capacity British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 1, 63-76

• Sroufe et al., (1993) ─ In this longitudinal study, the researchers found that 10-11 year old
children identified as securely attached in their first year had more positive “outcomes.”
Avoidant infants became isolated. Ambivalent infants became deviant and more difficult to
manage at home and school (e.g. hyperactive, aggressive, etc.).
Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Kreutzer, T. (1990). The fate of early experience following developmental change: Longitudinal approaches to individual adaptation in childhood.
Child Development, 61, 1363-1373. Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (1999). One social world: The integrated development of parent-child and peer relationships.
In W. A. Collins & B. Laursen (Eds.) Relationships as developmental context: The 29th Minnesota symposium on child psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

• Fonagy et al., (19907) ─ They found that secure preschoolers and young school-age children
were more competent on various mental tasks.
Fonagy, P, Redfern, S, Charman, T (1997). The relationship between belief-desire reasoning and a projective measure of attachment security British Journal of Developmental
Psychology, 15, 1, 51-61.
Prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
 Ainsworth’s Attachment Classifications
versus
Thomas & Chess’s Temperament Profiles
Percent
Temperament Percent Attachment
of One Year
Profile of Infants Classification
Olds

Easy 60% Secure 63%

Difficult 15% Resistant 8%

Slow to
Warm Up 23% Avoidant 29%
Data drawn from a similar chart created by faculty at the University of Western Ontario for undergraduate students taking course 240 B . No specific
faculty author is listed. Retrieved at http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/undergraduate/psych240b-2/lectureslides/attachment_final.ppt#79
Parenting Styles ─ Baumrind
• Authoritarian
– Child is told, “Do it because I said so!”
– A punitive and highly controlling parenting style
– Only concerned about obedience

• Authoritative
– Use firm but fair discipline with an emphasis on communication
and high expectations for moral maturity
– Are less likely to use physical punishment
– Involve children in decisions and rule-making

• Permissive
– Loose and inconsistent structure
– Children given much freedom in deciding activities, rules, and
schedules and must often make decisions they do not feel
comfortable making.
Source: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967).
Retrieved from http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html. Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967). Child
care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, 43-88.

Prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 Baumrind
Parent-Child Relationships
Baumrind (1983) states that there are 3 types of
parenting:

• Permissive – set few rules and rarely punish

their children.

• Authoritarian – set strict rules and rely on

punishment.

• Authoritative – warm and loving with firm but fair

discipline and much communication about moral
maturity Source: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967).
Retrieved from http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html. Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967).
Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, 43-88.

Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

What parenting style is best?
Outcomes associated with different styles
– Authoritarian
• Lack of social competence
• Aggression and a disregard for others’ rights
• Most social contact confined to deviant peers
• Externally imposed “heteronomous” morality
– Authoritative
• Greater self-reliance and self-confidence
• More sociable, adventuresome, and respectful of others
– Permissive
• Immature, impulsive, unable to take others’ perspective
Limitations of research
– Culturally biased? (most research carried out with white,
middle class children and adolescents)
– Confusion of causality? Kids may elicit parenting styles.

Slide prepared by Gordon Vessels in 2005. His Sources: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original
Descriptions of the Styles (1967). Retrieved from http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html. Original source: Buamrind,
Diana (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, 43-88.
ANOTHER CLASSIFICATION
of PARENTING
PARENTING
STYLES STYLES

Accepting Rejecting
Nurturing Unresponsive
Responsive Emotionally Aloof

Demanding Authoritative Authoritarian

Rejecting
Controlling Diana Baumrind Overly Strict

Not Demanding Indulgent Neglectful

Accepting Rejecting
Not Controlling Permissive Permissive

Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

 Development of “Prosocial” Behavior
• Pro-social behavior is the aspect of
moral conduct that includes socially
desirable behaviors such as sharing,
helping, and cooperating.

• Pro-social behavior in infancy: babies

cry when they hear the crying of other
babies but not when they hear tape-
recorded crying ─ suggests at least a
primitive level of global empathy

• Martin Hoffman traced the development

of empathy through four stages.
Sources: Hoffman, Martin (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge University Press;
Hoffman, Martin (1977). Moral internalization: current theory and research. In L. Berkowitz, (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Psychology, Vol.
10, New York: Academic Press; Hoffman, Martin (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.) The
Development of Prosocial Behavior. New York: Academic Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.
 Development of empathy
• Empathy involves feeling and understanding another’s
emotional state, which goes beyond mere sympathy.
• Martin Hoffman’s research has yielded the following:
– emotional contagion of newborns (global empathy)
– during the second year, babies actively attempt to
comfort a person in distress, particularly their moms
• has been shown in reactions to staged events
such as mother’s pretending to hurt an ankle.
– preschoolers empathize with a wider set of feelings
and can empathize with people they have not met
including story characters they can only imagine and
people they learn about through the media.
– between 6 and 9 years of age, children begin to
empathize with people based on their knowledge of
troublesome social-environmental conditions such as
being sick, living in poverty, or losing a relative.
Sources: Hoffman, Martin (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge University
Press; Hoffman, Martin (1977). Moral internalization: current theory and research. In L. Berkowitz, (Ed.), Advances in Experimental
Psychology, Vol. 10, New York: Academic Press; Hoffman, Martin (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: empathy and guilt.
In N. Eisenberg (Ed.) The Development of Prosocial Behavior. New York: Academic Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.
 The Development of Moral Reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg
Explained how children and teens develop a sense
of right and wrong (an ethic of justice)
– Looked at reasoning through dilemmas rather
than behavior or moral emotion
– Examined the nature and progression of moral
reasoning or judgment through several stages.
– He proposed 3 Levels of Moral Reasoning:
• Preconventional
– Punishment orientation (stage 1)
– Reward orientation (stage 2)
• Conventional
– Good boy/good girl orientation (stage 3)
– Respect for authority orientation (stage 4)
• Postconventional
– Social contract orientation (stage 5)
– Individual principles/conscience orientation (stage 6)
Kohlberg, Lawrence (Ed.) (1983). The Psychology of Moral Development. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005.
 KOHLBERG'S BEHAVIORAL-SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY
View of "Right" Primary Levels Motivation Perspective Age/Grade
Punishment Preschool
That Which Egocentric Early Childhood
Avoiding
Pre-Conventional
Gains
(self-serving) Pleasure/ Grades K-2
Approval Individualistic Middle Childhood
Reward Seeking
From
Others Acceptance/ Grades 3-5
Interpersonal Late Childhood
Conventional Approval Seeking
(other- serving) Rule Following/ Grades 6-8
Status Seeking Organizational Early Adolescence
That Which
Adheres Grades 9-12
Post- Law Abiding/
to Societal Late Adolescence
Rights Respecting
Rules or Conventional
Principles (principle- Justice Seeking/
serving) Universal Adulthood
Conscience Driven

Developed by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2000 ©

 Moral Development and
Conceptions of Fairness: Damon
Studied 4 through 12 year old children’s ideas
about fairness (positive justice), and how
they thought rewards and resources should be
divided-up or distributed. A sample story:
A classroom of children spent a day drawing pictures. Some
children made a lot of drawings; some made fewer. Some
children drew well; others did not. Some children were well-
behaved and worked hard; others fooled around. Some
children were poor; some were boys; some were girls. The
class then sold the drawings at a school fair. How should the
money from the sale of the drawings be given to out to the
students who painted pictures?
Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy
Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.
 Moral Development and
Conceptions of Fairness: Damon
• In his studies of kids in the USA, Israel,
Puerto Rico, and parts of Europe, Damon
found that ideas of fairness develop
through a sequence of levels:
– Under age 4, children simply state their
desires and give no reason for their choice.
– Four and five year old kids state their desires
but justify their choices on the basis of
external factors (e.g. ¨we should get more
because we are girls, or . . . we are bigger¨)
Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy
Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.
 Moral Development and
Conceptions of Fairness: Damon
• Five to seven year old children believe that
equality is the only fair way to divvy up
valued rewards, and they will argue their
point.
– No mitigating circumstances for them
• For ages 8 and above, ideas of merit and
need enter into children’s moral reasoning.
– They start to take into account all the factors
involved in order to ensure a fair outcome in
each situations — a case by case decision.
Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy
Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.
 Reasoning and Actual Behavior
• How does the thinking of young children about fairness
correspond to their behavior in the real world?
• Damon did a study where six-year-old and ten-year-old
children were asked to divide candy bars given to their
group as ¨payment¨ for making bracelets.
– Six-year-olds insisted that fairness meant each
person should get the same number of candy bars.
– Older children were better able to adjust the outcome
to fit the students’ abilities and the contributions made
by each group member.
• In 50 % of the cases, children’s behavior matched their
concept level in the simulated situations.
• In 10 % of the cases, behavior was on a higher level.
• In 40 % of the cases, it was on a lower level. Real candy
made a real difference.
Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy
Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.
 Affective Developmentalists
Grade Clusters Erikson Havighurst Hoffman Hay
Shown Below Knowles Kagan Havighurst
Trust,
Infants Openness, Hope Global Empathy
Naturally & Non-
Selectively
Autonomy Prosocial
Toddlers (Independence), Will Affective Empathy

Guilt for Shame & Guilt

Initiative, Uncontrolled Dawn of
Preschool Imagining, Purpose Aggression Conscience

Early Conscience Authoritarian

Perspective Taking
Elementary Inner Moral Guide or the Cognitive
Conscience
Component of Empathy;
Late Industry, Guilt for Rational
Elementary Competence, Skill Irresponsibility Conscience

Middle Complete Set of

Identity Formation Anxiety Moral
School (Consolidation of Related to Inconsistency Principles
Roles, Between Beliefs
Identifications, and and Actions No
High Personal (exact point of
School Characteristics) emergence not clear) Information

Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©

 Affective Development
Havighurst Erikson Hoffman Kagan Hay Selman / Damon
Need to become Global Empathy
Trusting, open, and Natural
Infants no information
Hopeful or will be discomfort at no information
Age 0-1 fearful throughout life another's distress non-
selective
Need to become Self-Regulatory
Toddlers no information
Independent, and Empathy prosocial no information
Age 2-3 Willful or be self- feelings of concern that tendency
doubting limit aggression

Preschool Beginning of moral Need to take Initiative Moral feeling of guilt Emotions Can’t distinguish their
perspective from that of
responsibility; the and Imagine or may presumably extant
Early Child- be cruel and critical of shame others; know self in
hood 4-5 Dawn of with uncontrolled terms of unrelated
Conscience throughout life aggression and guilt surface characteristics
Early Authoritarian Move from a need Perspective Taking Prosocial Know people have
different viewpoints but can
Elementary Conscience: for initiative to need the cognitive component
behavior take only one at a time and
voice of parent taken for Industry, Skill, of empathy combines
Middle favor their own; understand
in as a moral guide via
and competence
with affective compo- becomes self in terms of
Childhood love & discipline nent that is present
at birth; guilt and
more comparisons
Better understanding of
Late Rational Need to be Competent or do
Elementary self-scorn related to selective different viewpoints and
Conscience: things well or they will feel know they can have
Late through cooperation inferior and be unable to
irresponsibility and and more than one plus
over-indulgence are
Childhood with peers and an
understanding of rules work well with others presumably experienced declines mixed feelings; self the
same
Need to form an
Middle School Complete Set Identity or consolidate
Moral emotion of Step outside situation and
see as complex; have third-
Anxiety related to no
Early of Moral roles, identifications, and party view of self, others,
Adolescence inconsistency information and relationships; know
Principles characteristics or will be
between beliefs and self in terms of effects on
insecure, compulsive, or others
even deviant; tend to be actions presumably no
High School emerges sometime Understand self in terms
clannish and preoccupied information
Late no information with how they are after late childhood of personal philosophy &
Adolescence or during adolescence plan for the future
perceived by peers.

Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©

 Juxtaposition of Piaget on Piaget Kohlberg
Relevant
Cognitive on Moral on Moral
Developmental Theories
(part 2 is on the next slide) Development Development Development
● They can’t decenter or take the ● They are subject to the morality of (Preconventional 1)
perspective of others but are imitative. constraint. ● They display heteronomous or adult-
Preschool ● They can sense and perceive but not
symbolically manipulate.
● They exhibit social play but do not try to
win.
dependent morality.
● They think in absolutes of right and
Early Childhood ● They cannot comprehend classes and ● Justice is viewed as that commanded by wrong.
subclasses. authority. ● They have an egocentric viewpoint.
Kindergarten ● They cannot relate to adults’ abstract ● Casual attitude about rules. ● They are good to avoid
reasoning. ● Authority maintains egocentrism.
Pre-Kindergarten ● They can’t reflect on or think about their ● Egocentrism a step between the solitary
punishment or gain rewards.
● They view the value of life the way they
own thinking. play of younger children and the social do the value of objects.
● They assume you know what they know. play of children six and older.

● They display instrumental cooperation. (Preconventional 2)

Concrete Operations ● They see right as that which satisfies
Early Elementary ● They move from perceptual or pre-
● They are largely subject to the morality
of constraint. their needs.
Middle Childhood operational to conceptual or concrete- ● They want to win by age seven but have
a vague notion of game rules.
● They have a concrete, pleasure/ reward-
seeking, individualistic perspective.
operational thought, i.e., they begin to
First and Second solve problems in their heads because ● They view rules as sacred and ● Their cooperation is instrumental, and
they exchange favors to satisfy needs.
they can manipulate objects unchangeable.
Grades symbolically. ● They view justice as that which is ● The value of life is viewed as
● They cannot imagine events that are commanded by authority. instrumental to need satisfaction.
not real events, need real things to
think about, and cannot think ● They are in transition between (Conventional 3)
abstractly. heteronomy and moral autonomy. ● They view right as what gains approval.
Late Elementary ● They can take the perspective of ● They come to know codified game rules ● They have an interpersonal, Golden
others. and show an intense interest in them.
Late Childhood ● They are becoming more and more ● They continue to view rules as
Rule, good-child/bad-child perspective.
● They gain approval by being caring and
Grades interested in their peers.
● They willfully engage in social
unchangeable.
● They view justice in terms of equality
accommodating toward significant
others.
Three Through Five cooperation. that comes about from solidarity and ● They view the value of life in terms of
mutual respect. affectional bonds.

● They have principled moral autonomy, (Conventional 4)

Middle School Formal Operations morality emerging from cooperation. ● They view right as doing one's duty,
● Their rule mastery and codification of showing respect to authority, and main-
Early Adolescence ● They move from concrete operational game rules, that began at about age taining social order.
to formal-operational thought, think
Grades logically and abstractly, and begin to
ten, continues.
● They view justice as equity,not equality.
● They have an organizational-need,
societal-need, law-maintaining view.
Six Through Eight manipulate
symbols in their heads. They can
● Rules are viewed as a changeable ● They view life as sacred within the
product of mutual consent. context of a scheme or moral rights.
imagine hypothetical as well as real
events. (Post-conventional)
High School ● They can introspect, reflect, and think
about their own thinking. ● They view right as guarding basic
rights and legal contracts, or as
Late Adolescence ● They can consider many view-points meeting mutual obligations in context
and take the perspective of others fully. unexplained
Grades ● They are much more self-conscious
of societal rights and standards.
● They have a law-creating, moral-legal
Nine Through Twelve than they were previously. view that obligates them to honor social
commitments.
Developed by Gordon Vessels 1998 © ● Principled moral reasoning.
 Selman & Damon on Erikson, Hoffman, & Juxtaposition of
Youniss on Havighurst on Relevant
Friendship Moral Moral-Affective Developmental Theories
Development Development Development (part 1 is on previous slide)

(Level 1) ● 0-A: (4 years old): They make no (Erikson/Hoffman)

● Children have an egocentric under- attempt to justify choices and feel they ● They must take initiative and will
standing of friendship that involves should get more because they want experience much guilt and fail to Preschool
realize their potential if they fail.
sharing toys and enjoyable activities more. They distort adult orders to fit
● They are at the “dawn of conscience” Early Childhood
with incidental playmates. They are their wishes.
but have not internalized adult
becoming more selective and selfish ● 0-B: (5 years old): They justify choices standards. Kindergarten
in a selfish, after-the-fact way and view
with their prosocial behavior. They
authority only as a block to satisfying
● They have affectively empathetic Pre-Kindergarten
can’t distinguish between their own feelings that limit aggression and
perspective and that of others. their own desires. enable social and moral growth.

(Egalitarianism) (Havighurst/Hoffman)
(Level 1)
● 1-A: They view fairness as equality. ● They internalize adult standards and
● Friendship is defined by uneven-handed
reciprocity that derives from a Authority is confused with the power to the voice of parent(s) as a result of love Early Elementary
enforce. and empathy-mediating inductions that
subjective, unilateral, or one-way social
● 1-B: They view fairness in terms of connect actions with felt affects. Middle Childhood
perspective. Friends begin to realize that
feelings and intentions and not just merit and reciprocal obligation.
Fairness takes on value in its own right.
(Erikson) First and Second
actions keep them together. They know ● They must gain a sense of competence
others have a different perspective but Children see obedience as legitimate and will feel inferior and have Grades
can focus only on one. trade for adult favors and help. relationship problems if they fail.
(Level 2) (Equity/Benevolence) (Havighurst)
● Friendship is defined by two-way, ● 2-A: They view fairness as a right of all, ● A rational conscience replaces the
cooperative, even-handed reciprocity. and they view leaders with knowledge authoritarian conscience via peer-group Late Elementary
Fair- weather friendships may not identification, peer cooperation, and an
withstand conflicts. They can self reflect
as more legitimate.
● 2-B: They view justice (by age 10) as understanding of the function of rules. Late Childhood
and realizethat people have an outer and
inner self. They realize that people have
context dependent and can make (Hoffman) Grades
reasoned decisions based on claims
varying viewpoints and are awareof their
and conditions, but their perspective is
● Feel guilty for violating internalized
abstract moral rules and can take the
Three Through Five
own mixed feelings.
limited to the situation. perspective of others.
(General) (Havighurst/Hoffman)
(Level 3)
● Friendship is defined by mutual and ● Self-understanding is based on social ● They begin to form a complete set of Middle School
and personality traits rather than the
exclusive trust, loyalty, and intimacy that
involves sharing inner-most feelings with abilities of childhood or the beliefs of late
moral principles that they use to judge
self and others.
Early Adolescence
a trusted few. It is built on the ability to adolescence.
● Will gain ability to view situations that
(Erikson) Grades
take a third-party view of self, others, ● They seek to consolidate their roles
and relationships, i.e., they can step involve disparate claims to justice from a
wider perspective than the situation and and identifications into an identity. Six Through Eight
outside a social situation and view its ● They tend to over-identify with
complexities. can apply moral principles.
individuals and groups and tend to be
(Level 4) clannish and intolerant.
● They are driven by a concern for how
● Friendship is defined by autonomous they are perceived by their peers. High School
inter dependence whereby friends are ● Self understanding or self-concept is ● The resolution of this crisis allows for
close and intimate yet grant eachother based on beliefs, philosophies, and growth in terms of moral development
Late Adolescence
the independence to establish other
close friendships. Words, glances, and
thoughts rather than personality qualities
as was the case in early adolescence.
and the capacity for sexual intimacy.
● Failure can be due to unresolved
Grades
gestures can have deeper shared
meanings that are unknown to others.
earlier crises or the failure to commit to Nine Through Twelve
an ideology and way of life.
Developed by Gordon Vessels 1998 ©
 Friendship / Self / Perspective Taking
Youniss Selman Damon
Children's Friends Are . . . self-concept and
Friendship Stories Friendship Is . . . Perspective Taking Ability view of self
those who live nearby; understand self in
cannot distinguish terms of unrelated
3-6 those with whom they their own perspective
are playing; those whose surface
6 year old children from that of others characteristics
tell stories about toys they want
6 sharing toys and recognize others may have
play activities subjectivity and uneven- different viewpoints but can understand self in
6-8 handed reciprocity; know consider only one at a time terms of comparisons
feelings, not just activities, and favor their own; a with others,
keep them together one-way social perspective particularly peers
8 no stories gathered
have a better understanding
more cooperative, even- of peoples’ different view-
8-10 handed reciprocity; fair- points and know they can same as above
weather friendships don't have more than one or mixed
10 year old children withstand conflict
tell stories about feelings; two-way perspective
10 playing and sharing can step outside a situation
play activities mutual understanding and and view its complexities understand self in
exclusive trust replaces terms of effects on
10-13 reciprocal interest; friend-
and have a third-party
others of personal
perspective on self, others,
13 year old children ships withstand conflicts and relationships characteristics
13 tell stories about
assisting each other autonomous interdepen- understand others in
13-18 dence: close and intimate terms of personal
18 year old adolescents friends grant each other the philosophy and plans
right to have other friends for the future
18 tell stories about
sharing private
18-25 thoughts and feelings

Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©