INTRODUCTION TO RS/GIS

DDIBYA RONALD

2021

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1. REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGY
AND TRENDS

1.1 What is RS/GIS?

• RS: Arts and Science of capturing information from an object without direct
contact with it.

– Is a tool or technique similar to mathematics, using sophisticated sensors to

measure the EM signal exiting an object or geographic feature and then
extracting valuable information using mathematically and statistically based
algorithms (Fusell et al., 1986)
– Is in harmony with other mapping sciences such as cartography and geographic
Information System (GIS)
– The process of interpretation (particularly the visual one) is lifetime experience
dependent.

• GIS: An organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographical

data and personal design to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate,
analyze and display all forms of geographically referenced information.
(ESRI, 1990). 2
1.2 Sensors and platforms
• Sensor: Instrument use for information capture
(captured signal is generally electromagnetic)

• Resolution of a Sensor:
- Radiometric: sensitivity differentiate signal strength
- Spatial: measure of smallest angular or linear separation
detail.
- Spectral: Windows of wave length sensitivity
- Temporal: How often the image of an particular area is
recorded
• E.g sensor: Electron microscope, camera, X-rays
device

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More information

• Meteosat: http://www.eumetsat.de
• MetOp:
http://www.esa.int/export/esaME/index.html
• MSG at ESA:
http://www.esa.int/export/esaEO/SEMLFM2VQUD
_index_0_m.html
• NOAA: http://www.noaa.gov
• GOES: http://www.goes.noaa.gov
• INDOEX: http://www-indoex.ucsd.edu/
• GERB: http://www.ssd.rl.ac.uk/gerb/

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1.2 Sensors and platforms (Ctd…)

• Platform: The sensor carrier

- Vehicle
- Aircraft
- Satellite
etc.

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Many different
platforms and sensors

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 Sensor categorization
visible
domain microwave domain
optical domain


Passive systems record energy reflected or
 multi spectral scanner
passive sensors
 imaging spectroscopy
emitted by a target
gamma ray
spectrometer  (field) spectrometer
thermal scanner passive microwave
radiometer

 photography
- e.g. normal photography, most optical
 video

satellites sensors radar

altimeter
active sensors 
Active systems illuminate target with
laser
scanner imaging radar

energy and measure reflection

- e.g. Radar sensors, Laser altimeters
wavelength

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Multi-scale:
from 1 meter height
to 36,000 km height

Relate that, for example,

to disaster effects ranging
from building damage
after a flood, to large-
scale drought

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Geostationary vs.
Polar

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Effect of distance on
orbit length

Increasing distance typically also leads to reduced

spatial resolution! 10
Spatial resolution vs.
repetition rate

Compare with onset times

for hydrological
phenomena (seconds to
months)
For image acquisition, also consider sensor revisit times –
compare 30 minutes (GOES) and 26 days (SPOT) 11
Don’t forget swath width:
e.g. GOES – Earth hemisphere (42%) vs.
AVHRR – 2800 km, vs. Ikonos – 11km!

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Comparison of different systems

Remember the
trade-off between
spatial resolution
and coverage, but
also file size

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 1.3 Remote sensing processes
Problem Data Data Information
Identification collection analysis Presentation

• In situ Image processing

Selection of -Field
- Analog/Digital
Logic: -Laboratory
•Analog: - Error report
-Collateral data AP interpretation - Image lineage
Elements (colour, size,
- Statistics
-Inductive • RS bio-Physical and Texture, pattern,
- Graphs
-Deductive Hybrid data Association)
-Technological Passive analog
-AP •Digital
-Satellite image
-Topomaps -Pattern recognition
Passive digital -Photogrammetric
analysis
-Satellite image
-Neural analysis
-Spectroradiometric -Expert system
image -Modeling using GIS/
Active energy matter
- Radar data interactions
- Laser data (Lidar) 15
- Sonar
1.4. RS advantage

• No interference with the object

• Unbiased collection of data
• Systematic collection of Survey
information for large areas
• Source of critical information for many
natural and cultural processes (Digital
Elevation Model).

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 1.5 RS limitations

• It is not a panacea
• Human induced errors can be introduced
when selecting the RS instrument, and
specifying mission parameters
• Active sensor can interfere with the object

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1.5. RS/GIS applications

• Precision agriculture
• Mapping problem: e.g. infestation level,
disasters (locust out-break)
• Observing weather and climate
• Mapping infrastructure
• Observation of water temperature and 10
productivity
• Strengthening local government planning
and decision making processes
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 2.4 RS technology trends
• Higher number of operational satellites
•Increased spatial and temporal resolutions
• Use of sensors with wider wave lengths, New active sensors (e.g. spaceborne laser scanner)
•Stereo imaging
• Provision of specific application oriented information products for basic remote sensing data
(Use of DEM)
• Use of artificial intelligent software
• Use of smaller and cheaper satellite (smallsat e.g TERRA/AQUA, ENVISAT)
• Integration with GPS
• Better pointability (affording faster revisits)
• More sophisticated radar (multi-band/ -polarisation)
•Better hyperspectral sensors
•Better image coverage (more receiving stations, or relays)
•Cheaper data
•More rapid data dissemination

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RS/GIS challenges and
opportunities for ACP countries

• Lack of:
- Infrastructure (acquisition, storage,
processing, production and distribution)
- Organizational structure
- Data policy
- Human capacity
- Awareness from decision makers and
public
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Opportunities

• Existence of alternative cost –effective

platforms (small aircraft, balloons, kites)
• Existence of regional centres

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ELECTROMAGNETIC PRINCIPLES

• The Sun is the main source of EM in our galaxy

• EMs are radiated by atomic particles, and moves
at the speed of light (c=3.108 m/s in vacuum)
• EMs interact with the earth’s atmosphere and
surface
• They reach the Remote sensor, and interacts
with various optical systems, filters, film
emulsions, or detectors

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Fundamental interactions
• Conduction: transfer of kinetic energy by collision
• Convection: Transfer of kinetic energy by moving the
body
• Radiation: Only form of energy transfer which can take
place in a vacuum.

– Irradiance is the amount of radiant flux incident per unit area of

a plane surface
– The amount of radiant flux leaving per unit area of the plane
surface is called exitance
– Radiance is the radiant flux per unit solid angle leaving an
extended source in a given direction per unit of projected source
area in that direction

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Fundamental interactions:
Propagation
Wave model:
The EM creation:

• A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of

electromagnetic induction, the basis of operation for electrical generators,
induction motors, and transformers). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a
magnetic field. Because of this interdependence of the electric and magnetic fields, it
makes sense to consider them as a single coherent entity - the electromagnetic field.

• The wavelength (λ: m) depends on the acceleration period,

• The wavelength is the distance between two consecutive maximum of a roughly
periodic pattern
• The frequency of oscillation (f) is the number of cycle made per unit time (Hertz: Hz)
• There is a fundamental relationship between f, c and λ:

 λ= c/f

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Magnetic and Electrical fields

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Elerctromagnetic spectrum

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Visible light represent about 46% of the solar irradiance
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Fundamental interactions:
Propagation
Particle model:
• Isaac Newton stated that light was stream of
particles, corpuscles
• Einstein: When light interacts with matter is
behave like it is composed by many individual
bodies called “photons” carrying particle like
properties such as energy and momentum.
• The energy is transferred in packets “quanta”:
Q=hf (Joules)
• Where h=6.626 10-34 J/s) is the Planck constant

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Wavelength vs frequency of EM

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 Qualitative

Radiance Wm-2sr-1m-1

Quantitative

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Fundamental interactions: Energy-
Matter in the atmosphere

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Fundamental interactions: Energy-
Matter in the atmosphere
• Refraction: The change in light path when
the latter passes from one medium (1) to
medium (2) of different density
– The index of refraction (n) is a measure of the
optical density of a substance
– Refraction is described by Snell-Descartes
Law (n1sin1=n2sin 2)
– Where 1 is incident angle and 2 refraction
angle

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Energy-Matter in the atmosphere ctd …

• Scattering
Is the most important effect of the atmosphere. It differs from reflection by
the fact that its direction is unpredictable. There are three types of
scattering:

Rayleigh: diameter of the molecule is much less than λ of the EM. The
intensity of Rayleigh scattering varies inversely with the fourth power of the
wavelength

Mie: Occur within the lower 4.5 km of the atmosphere, (dust and other
particles whose diameter range from a few tenths to several micrometers.
It is very important than the Rayleigh scattering

Non-selective: Takes place in the lowest portion of the atmosphere, where

there are particles greater than 10 times λ of the incident EMs.

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Energy-Matter in the atmosphere ctd…

• Radiation budget equation

The radiant flux in specific wavelengths ( ) incident
to the terrain (iλ) must be accounted by
evaluating the amount of energy:
• Reflected from the surface (rλ)
• Absorbed by the surface (λ)
• Transmitted through the surface (λ)

• If these are the only process which have taken

place
1 = rλ + λ + λ

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Hemispherical Reflectance,
Absorptance and Transmittance
• Reflectance (rλ): Is the dimensionless ratio of the
radiant flux reflected from a surface to the radiant flux
incident to it.
rλ= reflected /iλ
• Transmittance: Is the dimensionless ratio of the radiant
flux transmitted through a surface to the radiant flux
incident to it.
λ = transmitted /iλ

• Absorptance: Is the dimensionless ratio of the radiant

flux absorbed by a surface to the radiant flux incident to
it.
λ = reflected /iλ

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Absorption
• Is the process by which radiant energy is absorbed and
converted into other form of energy.
• Portions of the spectrum that transmit radiant energy
effectively are called atmospheric window
• Absorption band: range of wavelengths in the EM
spectrum which radiant energy is absorbed by a
substance
• Infrared and wavelengths shorter than visible light are
more affected by absorption than by scattering
• Chlorophyll in vegetation absorbs much of the incident
blue and red light for photosynthetic purposes

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 Sun and Earth Spectra and Atmospheric
Windows

Sun Earth

IR Dirty Window
Visible Window

Absorption only, not effects of Rayleigh Scattering by gases.

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Spectral signature

• For any given material, the amount of solar

radiation that it reflects, absorbs, transmits, or
emits varies with wavelength. When that
amount (usually intensity, as a percent of
maximum) coming from the material is plotted
over a range of wavelengths, the connected
points produce a curve called the material's
spectral signature (spectral response curve).

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Spectral signature:makes it possible to identify different
substances or classes and to separate them by their individual spectral

signatures

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Spectral signature

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Free modules online

• http://www.planetek.it/
• http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro/
Part2_5.html

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